A'/o^'-/*? 


Uv5.  DEPARTMENT  OF   AGKiGUL  i'URE 

10. 107. 


OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— ^Ufcrft  NO.  107. 


A.  C.  TRUE,  Dire<C 


ami 


NUTRITION  INVESTIG 


AMONG 


FRUITARIANS  AND 


AT  THE 


TUBAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


D9-1901. 


BY 


M.    E.    JAFFA.    M.    S., 

Assistant  Professor  of  Agrirultmr.  University  of  <  alifurnia. 


LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE   OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  ON 
THE  FOOD  AND  NUTRITION  OF  MAN. 

Note.— For  those  publications  to  w  hi<-h  a  price  is  affixed  application  should  be  made  to  the  Super- 
intendent of  Documents,  Union  Building.  Washington,  I).  C.,  the  officer  designated  by  law  to  sell 
Government  publications.     Publication- marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  not  available  for  distribution. 

*  Charts.   Food  and  Diet.     By  W:  0.  Atwater.     (Four  charts.  26  by  40  inches.)     Price 

per  set,  unmounted,  75  cents. 
Bui.  21.  Methods  and  Results  oi  Investigations  on  the  Chemistry  and  Economy  of 

Food.     By  W.  O.  Atwater.     Pp.  222.     Price,  15  cents.' 
Bui.  2S.    (Revised  edition,  i  The  Chemical  Composition  of  American  Food  Materials. 

By  W.  O.  Arwattr  and  A.  P.  Bryant.     Pp.  87.     Price.  5  cents. 
Bui.  29.  Dietary  Studies  it  the  University  of  Tennessee  in  1895.     By  C.  E.  Wait, 

with  comments  by  W.  O.  Atwater  and  C.  D.  Woods.     Pp.*  45.     Price,  5 

cents. 
Bui.  31.  Dietary  Studies  at  the  University  of  Missouri  in  1895,  and  Data  Relating  to 

Bread  and  Meat  Consumption  in  Missouri.     By  H.  B.  Gibson,  S.  Calvert, 

and  D.  W.  May.  with  comments  by  W.  O.  Atwater  and  C.   D.  Woods. 

Pp.  24.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  32.  Dietary  Studies  at  Purdue  University,  Lafayette,  Did.,  in  1895.     By  W.  E. 

Stone,  with  comments  by  W.  O.  Atwater  and  C.  D.  Woods.    Pp.  28.    Price, 

5  cents. 
Bui.  35.  Food  and  Nutrition  Investigations  in  New  Jersey  in  1895  and  1896.     By 

E.  B.  Voorhees.     Pp.  40.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  37.  Dietary_Studies  at  the  Maine  State  College  in  1895.     By  W.  H.  Jordan. 

Pp.  57.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  38.  Dietary  Studies  with  Reference  to  the  Food  of  the  Negro  in  Alabama  in 

1895"and  1896.     Conducted  with  the  Cooperation  of  the  Tuskegee  Normal 

and  Industrial  Institute  and  the  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of 

Alabama.     Reported  by  W.  0.  Atwater  and  C.  D.  Woods.     Pp.  69.    Price, 

5  cents. 
Bui.  40.  Dietary  Studies  in  New  Mexico  in  1895.    ByA.Goss.    Pp.23.    Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  43.  Losses  in  Boiling  Vegetables  and  the  Composition  and  Digestibility  of  Pota- 
toes and  Eggs.     By  H.  Snyder,  A.  J.  Frisby,  and  A.  P.  Bryant.     Pp.  31. 

Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  44.  Report  of  Preliminary  Investigations  on  the  Metabolism  of  Nitrogen  and 

Carbon  in  the  Human  Organism  with  a  Respiration  Calorimeter  of  Special 

Construction.     By  W.  0.  Atwater,  C.  D.   Woods,  and  F.   G.   Benedict. 

Pp.  64.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  45.   A  Digest  of  Metabolism  Experiments  in  which  the  Balance  of  Income 

and  Outgo  was  Determined.     Bv  W.  0.  Atwater  and  C.  F.  Langworthy. 

Pp.  434.  ~  Price,  25  cents. 
Bui.  46.  Dietary  Studies  in  New  York  City  in  1895  and  1896.     By  W.  O.  AtAvater  and 

C.  I).  Woods.     Pp.  117.     Price.  10  cents. 
Bui.  52.  Nutrition  Investigations  in  Pittsburg.  Pa.,    (894-1896.     By  Isabel  Bevier. 

Pp.  48.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  53.  Nutrition  Investigations  at  the  University  of  Tennessee  in  1896  and  1897. 

By  C.  E.  Wait.     Pp.  46.     Price,  5  cents'. 
Bui.  54.  Nutrition  Investigations  in  New  Mexico  in  1897.    By  A.  Goss.    Pp.  20.    Price, 

5  cents. 
Bui.  55.  Dietary  Studies  in  Chicago  in  1895  and  1896.     Conducted  with  the  Coopera- 
tion of  Jane  Addams  and  Caroline  L.  Hunt,  of  Hull  House.     Reported 

by  W.  O.  Atwater  and  A.  P.  Bryant.     Pp.  76.     Price,  5  cents. 

*  Bui.  56.  History  and  Present  Status  of  Instruction  in  Cooking  in  the  Public  Schools 

of  New  York  City.  Reported  by  Mrs.  Louise  E.  Hogan,  with  an  introduc- 
tion by  A.  C.  True,  Ph.  I).     Pp.  70.     Price,  5  cents. 

Bui.  63.  Description  of  a  New  Respiration  Calorimeter  and  Experiments  on  the 
Conservation  of  Energv  in  the  Human  Bodv.  Bv  W.  O.  Atwater  and 
E.  B.  Rosa.     Pp.  94.     Price,  10  cents. 

Bui.  66.  The  Physiological  Effect  of  Creatin  and  Creatinin  and  Their  Value  as  Nutri- 
ents. '  By  J.  W.  Mallet.     Pp.  24.     Price,  5  cents. 

[Continued  on  third  page  of  cover.] 


4:>7 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OE  AGRICULTURE. 

OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS— BULLETIN  NO.  107. 

A.   C.  TRUE,   Director. 


NUTRITION  INVESTIGATIONS 


AMONG 


FRUITARIANS  AND  CHINESE 


AT    THE 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION, 


1899-1901. 


BY 


M.    E.    JAFFA.    M.    8.. 

Assistant  Prof  »•<,/•  of  Agriculture,  University  of  California. 


AVASHIXGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1901. 


OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


A.  C.  True,  Ph.  D.,  Director. 

E.  W.  Allen,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant  Director. 

C  F.  Langworthy,  Ph.  D.,  Editor,  and  Expert  on  Foods  and  Animal  Product  ion 

NUTRITION    INVESTIGATIONS,   MIDDLETOWN,   CONN. 

W.  0.  Atwater,  Ph.  D.,  Special  Agent  in  Charge. 
C.  D.  Woods,  B.  S.,  Special  Agent  at  Orono,  Me. 

F.  G.  Benedict,  Ph.  D.,  Physiological  Chemist. 
A.  P.  Bryant,  M.  S.,  Editorial  Assistant. 

R.  D.  Milner,  Ph.  B.,  Assistant. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Office  of  Experiment  Stations, 
Washington,  D.  C,  October  25,  1901. 

Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  of  investi- 
gations on  the  nutrition  of  man,  conducted  at  the  agricultural  experi- 
ment station  of  the  University  of  California  in  1899-1901,  hy  M.  E. 
Jaffa,  M.  S.,  assistant  professor  of  agriculture  of  the  University  of 
California.  Six  dietary  studies  of  fruitarians,  a  digestion  experiment 
and  a  metabolism  experiment  with  a  fruitarian,  and  three  dietary 
studies  of  Chinese  are  included  in  the  investigations.  In  connection 
with  the  work  a  number  of  analyses  of  food  materials  and  excretory 
products  were  made.  These  studies  form  a  part  of  the  nutrition 
investigations  conducted  by  this  Office,  and  were  carried  on  in  accord- 
ance with  instructions  given  by  its  Director.  As  was  the  case  with 
earlier  investigations,  they  were  under  the  general  direction  of  Prof. 
W.  O.  Atwater,  special  agent  in  charge  of  nutrition  investigations. 

In  carrying  on  this  investigation  Professor  Jaffa  was  aided  in  the 
analytical  work  by  Mr.  G.  E.  Colby,  and  in  collecting  data,  calculating 
results,  and  in  other  ways  by  Messrs.  F.  J.  Snow,  R.  R.  Bishop,  and 
C.  L.  Biedenbach.  Acknowledgment  is  also  due  to  Mr.  W.  N.  Fong, 
instructor  in  the  department  of  Oriental  languages  of  the  University 
of  California,  for  assistance  in  interpreting  and  for  other  courtesies. 

Fruit  is  one  of  the  very  important  agricultural  products  of  this 
country,  yet  little  is  known  of  its  true  food  value.  The  studies  here 
reported  of  persons  living  largely  upon  fruit  are,  therefore,  of  special 
interest  in  this  connection,  and,  so  far  as  known,  are  the  first  of  their 
kind. 

In  order  that  data  may  be  secured  for  the  satisfactory  determination 
of  dietary  standards,  it  is  desirable  to  conduct  dietaiy  studies  with 
persons  living  under  widely  different  circumstances  and  of  different 
dietary  habits.  Most  of  the  studies  already  reported  have  been  made 
with  persons  consuming  a  mixed  animal  anjd  vegetable  diet.  It  seemed 
desirable  to  secure  results  with  persons  living  on  a  diet  in  which  vege- 
table foods  formed  the  principal  or  sole  source  of  nutrients.     These 

3 


4 

.studies  were  accordingly  made  with  members  of  a  fruitarian  colony 
who  claimed  to  live  almost  exclusively  on  a  diet  of  raw  fruits  and 
nuts,  and  with  the  Chinese,  who  are  commonly  said  to  live  very 
largely  upon  rice.  The  results  obtained  are  of  interest  in  themselves 
and  valuable  for  purposes  of  comparison.  The  report  is  transmitted 
with  the  recommendation  that  it  be  published  as  Bulletin  No.  107  of 
this  Office. 

Respectfully,  A.  C.  True, 

Director. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Nutritive  value  of  fruits 7 

I  ntroduction . 7 

Analysis  of  food  materials 9 

Description  of  samples 9 

The  dietary  studies T 11 

Dietary  study  <  if  a  fruitarian  ( No.  328 ) 11 

Dietary  study  « >f  a  fruitarian  (Xo.  329) 12 

Dietary  study  of  a  fruitarian  (No.  330) . 13 

Dietary  study  i >f  a  fruitarian  (Xo.  331) 14 

Dietary  study  of  a  fruitarian  (Xo.  332) 14 

Dietary  study  of  a  fruitarian  [  Xo.  333) 16 

Discussion  of  fruitarian  dietaries 17 

Digestion  experiment  with  a  girl 21 

Metabolic  nitrogen 22 

Balance  of  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen 23 

Dietary  studies  of  Chinese 25 

Introduction 25 

Composition  of  food  materials 26 

Dietary  study  of  a  dentist's  family  (Xo.  325 ) 29 

Discussion  of  results 31 

Dietary  study  of  a  Chinese  laundry  association  (Xo.  326) 32 

Discussion  of  results 34 

Dietary  study  of  employees  on  a  Chinese  truck  farm  (No.  327) 35 

Discussion  of  results 36 

Summary 38 

Conclusions 43 


ILLUSTRATION 


Page. 
Plate  1.   Dinner  at  Chinese  track  farm,  California „ 34 


NUTRITION  INVESTIGATIONS  AMONG  FRUITARIANS  AND 
CHINESE  IN  CALIFORNIA,  i899-i9oi. 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  FRUITS. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Fruit  is  considered  by  the  majority  of  persons  as  an  accessory  or  sup- 
plementary food,  eaten  for  its  agreeable  flavor  or  supposed  hygienic  or 
medicinal  virtues,  rather  than  as  a  staple  article  of  diet.  Perhaps  for 
this  reason  very  little  scientific  study  has  been  given  to  fruit  as  compared 
with  the  investigations  which  have  been  carried  on  in  connection  with 
other  more  common  food  materials.  Chemical  analysis  has  shown 
the  comparative  composition  of  fruits,  but  our  knowledge  of  their 
dietetic  value,  digestibility,  and  comparative  cost  as  sources  of  nutri- 
ents is  far  from  being  complete.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  has  been 
thought  best  that  California  should  undertake,  as  her  share  of  the 
nutrition  investigations  made  under  the  auspices  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  studies  of  the  nutritive  value  and  digesti- 
bility of  fruit.  Perhaps  no  State  in  the  Union  is  in  better  condition 
to  exploit  such  problems.  No  month  in  the  year  finds  the  California 
market  without  fresh  fruit  of  local  production,  and  many  people  are 
to  be  found  in  the  State  who  make  this  article  an  important  part  of 
their  dietary. 

It  is  not  an  infrequent  occurrence  to  see  popular  articles  in  the  daily 
papers  and  magazines  which  assert  the  superiority  of  the  vegetarian 
diet  over  the  ordinary  diet,  or  the  fruitarian  over  the  vegetarian.  The 
fruitarians  claim,  and  with  some  degree  of  justice,  that  the  so-called 
vegetarians  are  not  true  vegetarians,  but  are  simply  non-meat  eaters. 
This  is  certainly  true  of  many  of  them,  as  a  large  proportion  include 
animal  products  in  their  dietaries,  since  they  consume  considerable 
quantities  of  milk,  butter,  cheese,  eggs,  etc.,  and  some  even  go  so  far 
as  to  eat  fish. 

There  seems  to  be  an  infinite  variety  in  the  views  and  habits  of  those 
who  depart  from  the  conventional  methods  of  eating,  and  any  conclu 
sions  drawn  from  the  investigations  of  the  dietaries  of  some  of  these 
apply  to  only  comparatively  small  subdivisions  of  a  class.  It  would 
appear,  however,  that  mankind  may  be  divided  in  the  main  into  two 
classes — meat  eaters  and  non-meat  eaters.     In  the  first-named  class  the 

7 


variations  are  principally  in  the  relative  quantities  of  meat  and  other 
food  consumed,  and  are  comparatively  simple.  But  of  the  second  class 
we  have  many  subdivisions,  including,  among  others — 

(1)  Those  who  for  one  reason  or  another  abstain  from  the  use  of 
meat  entirely,  but  eat  other  animal  products,  such  as  milk.  eggs.  etc. 

(2)  Vegetarians,  who  rule  out  all  animal  foods  and  animal  products 
as  such,  but  who  partake  of  made  dishes  (puddings,  pastry,  cake,  etc.) 
which  contain  milk.  egg-,  etc. 

(3)  Vegetarians  who  object  to  "made  dishes.**  and  who  eat  as  far 
as  possible  uncooked  food:  living  practically  the  same  as  the  next  sub- 
division, though  naming  themselves  differently. 

(4)  Fruitarians,  who  live  principally  on  fruits  and  nuts,  but  who 
allow  in  their  dietary  some  vegetables  or  grain  products. 

(5)  The  strict  fruitarians,  who  live  exclusively  on  fruits  and  nuts. 

The  last  subdivision  is  perhaps  of  the  greatest  interest,  as  possess- 
ing the  most  restricted  dietary,  and  one  that  differ-  most  widely  from 
the  ordinary  diet. 

In  inaugurating  these  investigations  it  was  deemed  desirable  to 
select  such  subjects  as  were  not  only  accustomed  to  the  large  use  of 
fruit,  but  whose  dietaries  did  not  contain  many  other  foods.  Fortu- 
nately subjects  were  found  whose  ordinary  mode  of  living  placed  them 
in  the  last  two  subdivisions  (4  and  5):  that  is.  they  lived  almost  exclu- 
sively on  raw  fruit  and  nuts. 

A  number  of  dietary  studies  with  person-  living  on  a  more  or  less 
strictly  vegetarian  diet  have  been  reported  by  Cremer,1  Constantinidi," 
Rutgers.3  Voit.4  Avsitidiski.5  Tanaguti.0  Kellner  and  Mori.7  and 
others.  Of  these  the  study  made  by  Voit  is  most  directly  comparable 
with  those  reported  herewith.  It  was  made  with  a  young  man.  an 
upholsterer,  living  in  Munich.  For  three  years  he  had  lived  on  a  diet 
of  coarse  bread  (pumpernickel  and  graham),  fresh  and  dry  fruits,  and 
oil.  The  diet  differed  from  those  studied  in  California  in  that  bread, 
i.  e. .  cooked  food,  was  eaten.  However,  no  warm  cooked  food  was  used 
and  the  amount  of  fresh  and  dried  fruits  and  oil  eaten  daily  was  com- 
paratively large.  The  results  of  these  studies  are  discussed  elsewhere 
(p.  19)  in  connection  with  those  of  the  present  investigation. 

]ZtM-hr.  Physiol.  Chem..  1882,  \>.  357 

-Ztsehr.  Biol..  23    1—7  .  p.  447. 

3Ztschr.  Biol.,  25  (1888),  p.  371. 

•Ztechr.  Biol.,  25  (1889  .  p.  232. 

5The  Metabolism  of  Nitrogen  and  L"~>es  through  Skin  ami  Lungs  on  a  Vegetable 
diet.       Ru^ian.i      Enang.  Piss..  St.  Petersburg.  1S89. 

6Jahivsbr.  Thier  Chem.,  1892,  p.  468. 

7Ztschr.  Biol.,  25  (1S89L  \>.  102;  see  also  I".  s.  Dept  Alt..  <  Hiice  of  Experiment 
Stations  Bui.  21. 


The  investigation  of  fruitarians  Living  in  California  includes  (1)  the 

study  of  >ix  dietaries  which,  with  two  exceptions,  were  made  up  of 
fruit  and  nuts  exclusively  (in  the  first  rase  the  subject  ate  a  small 

quantity  of  a  cereal  preparation,  and  in  the  second  some  green  vege- 
tables); (2)  one  digestion  experiment  with  a  girl,  in  which  fruit  and 
nuts  constituted  the  entire  diet:  (3)  a  study  of  the  income  and  outgo 
of  nitrogen  in  the  digestion  experiment:  and  ti)  estimation  of  meta- 
bolic nitrogen  in  the  feces.  In  connection  with  the  experiments,  the 
composition  of  various  food  materials  and  excretory  products  was 
determined. 

ANALYSIS  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

In  connection  with  the  present  investigation-  a  number  of  analyses 
of  food  materials  were  made.  The  methods  of  analysis  followed  were 
practically  tho>e  adopted  by  the  Association  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists.1 

The  following  is  a  brief  description  of  the  -ample-  analyzed: 

DESCRIPTION  OF  SAMPLES. 

No.  2.  Apple.  "Newtown  pippin:  n  No.  1.  apple.  "  Early  Astrachan: " 
and  No.  6,  apricots.  •*  Hemeskirk."  sampled  and  analyzed  in  connec- 
tion with  dietary  studies. 

No.  1H.  Dates,  sampled  and  analyzed  in  connection  with  dietaries 
Nos.  328^331  and  333. 

No.  7.  Figs,  sampled  and  analyzed  in  connection  with  dietaries  Nos. 
&28-331  and  333. 

No.  9.  Peach,  "Early  Crawford:*'  No.  11.  pear-:  No.  13.  Japanese 
plum:  and  No.  15.  early  red  plum,  sampled  and  analyzed  in  connection 
with  the  dietary  studies. 

No.  30.  Bananas,  quoted  from  a  previous  publication,9  with  the 
exception  of  the  fiber,  which  was  determined. 

No.  21.  Almonds:  No.  22,  pignolias:  and  No.  24.  pine  nuts.  >ampled 
and  analyzed  in  eonneetion  with  the  dietary  studies. 

The  figures  in  the  column  "reference  Dumber''  refer  to  correspond- 
ing numbers  in  parentheses  after  the  different  food  materials  reeorded 
in  Tables  3-7. 

The  results  of  the  analyses  are  given  in  Table  1. 

1  U.  s.  Dept  Agr..  Division  of  Chemistry  Bui.  46,  revised. 
-  U.  s.  Dept.  Agr..  Office  of  Experiment  stations  Bui.  28. 


11) 


Table  1. — Composition  of  m  with  dietary  i 

i 


Food  materials. 


Fresh  fruits: 

Apples— 

Pippin,  edible  portion 

Pippin,  as  purchased 

Astraehan.  edible  portion.. 
Astraehan.  as  puroh:  - 

Apricots- 
Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Peaches,  Early  Crawford- 
Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Pears — 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Plums.  Japanese — 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Plums,  red- 
Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Orangi  — 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Dried  fruits: 

Dates- 
Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

Nuts: 

Almonds — 

Edible  portion 

As  purchased 

has,  pine  kernels 

Hue  nuts,  pifions— 

ble  portion 

'   irehased 


Ref- 
er-      Ref- 
eiice      use. 
N 


Per  ct. 


30.0 


Water. 


Pro- 


Fat. 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 


22 


10.  0 
------ 

"iKo 


Perct. 
BE 

63.9 
90.5 

-     _ 
00.3 

89.6 


B4.7 


-     ~ 


Sfi  " 


0.6 
.4 

1.4 
1.0 
L5 


! 


.1 
.1 
.1 

.1 
.1 

_ 

.1 
.1 

.5 

.1 
.1 

.1 
.1 

.1 
.1 


42. 9 


3.9  21.3 

2.2  12.0 

6. 3  34. 0 

2.8  14.9 
LI 


49.4 
59.4 


Crude 
fiber. 


12.  7 

4.7 
3.4 


Pi    Ct 

1.1 


LI 

2.9 


- 


13.9 
12.  5 


4.5 


- 
4.9 


11.1 


33.6 


15. 0 
8.4 

- 
10. 5 


3.6 


4.2 
3.9 


4.0 
3.4 


Ash. 


Per  ct. 

- 
.1 

.2 


Fuel 

value 

per 

pound. 


21.  3 


1.4 
1.3 


Calorie*. 
270 
205 
178 
125 

250 

400 

186 
146 

290 
265 


3. 1  2. 6 
1.7  1.4 
1.3         3.4 


- 
1.0 


2.8 

1.6 


186 

170 


205 

170 


135 


1.130 


3,020 
1.700 
2.  846 

3.160 
1,806 


The  composition  of  a  Dumber  of  foods  used  was  assumed  from  aver- 
age values  previously  reported,  as  follows: 

Table  2. — I  f  food  materials  lion  with  dietary  studies  Nos.  388 

ss    ned. 


Food  matt-rials. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


Fuel 
value 


i£L      F«t.     SogJ,  aoAe    Ash.       — 


starch 


fiber. 


i.ound. 




Dies: 
Celery- 
Edible  portion... 
- 

Tomatoes 

Fresh  fruits: 
Bananas — 

Edible  portion... 
As  parch   - 
Gnu 

Edible  portion. .. 
As  parch  - 

Edible  portion... 
As  parch  - 
Dried  fruits: 
Raisins — 

Edible  portion... 
- 

Brazil  nu:  — 

Edible  portion... 

Walnuts- 
Edible  portion... 
- 

Honey,  light 

ive  oil 


Perct.  Perct.   Perct.  Perct.  Per c  ries. 

5.3       11.7         1.0  79.7  -  1.740 


3.3 

2  ri 


3.3 


15.3 
10.6 


0.6 


L0 


-  - 


1.0 

- 


1.1 


" 


1.6 

1.4 


3.9 

- 


1.4 
.6 

- 


105 


230 


365 


1.150 

960 


1,475 

1.330 


3, 266 

1.640 

28f 
1,406 
1,520 
4,220 


11 

THE  DIETARY  STUDIES. 

The  subjects  were  a  family  consisting  of  two  women  and  three  chil- 
dren. One  of  the  women  was  the  aunt  of  the  children  and  took  rare 
of  them.  They  had  all  been  fruitarians  from  live  to  seven  years,  and 
made  no  change  in  the  character  of  their  diet  during  these  experiments. 

In  the  six  studies  here  reported  the  subjects  ate  only  twice  a  day. 
Their  first  meal  was  at  10.30  a.  m.  and  always  consisted  of  nuts  and 
fruit,  the  nuts  being  eaten  before  the  fruit.  At  their  second  meal, 
which  was  taken  about  .">  p.  m..  they  usually  ate  no  nuts,  substituting 
therefor  olive  oil  and  honey.  Almonds.  Brazil  nuts,  pine  nuts,  pig- 
oolias  (a  variety  of  pine  nuts),  and  walnuts  were  used,  as  well  as  fresh 
and  dried  fruit,  the  former  including  apples,  apricots,  bananas,  figs, 
grapes,  olives  (pickled),  oranges,  peaches,  pears,  plums,  the  latter  dates 
and  raisin-.  Some  celery  and  tomatoes  were  also  eaten,  and  in  one 
study  a  small  amount  of  a  prepared  cereal  food. 

A-  tomatoes  are  really  fruit,  though  ordinarily  used  as  a  vegetable, 
the  only  articles  used  which  were  not  fruit  or  nuts  were  celery,  olive 
oil.  honey,  and  the  cereal  food. 

It  was  interesting  to  watch  the  three  children  (the  subjects  of  dietary 
studies  Nos.  330,  331,  332,  and  333)  at  their  meals  and  hear  them  dis- 
cuss the  relative  virtues  of  the  different  nuts  as  persons  ordinarily 
discuss  the  different  dishes  of  an  ordinary  diet. 

In  calculating  the  results  to  the  corresponding  value  for  a  man  the 
usual  factors  were  used  (see  p.  IS). 

The  crude  liber  in  the  food  was  recorded  in  these  studies,  as  this  con- 
stituent was  regarded  as  of  especial  interest  in  a  diet  made  up  so  largely 
of  fruit  and  nuts.  Generally  speaking,  such  a  distinction  is  not  made 
in  reporting  dietary  studies,  but  instead  the  sum  of  the  crude  fiber  and 
the  sugars,  starches,  etc..  is  called  carbohydrate-. 

DIETARY  STUDY  OF  A  FRUITARIAN     No.   328). 

The  study  commenced  July  L8,  1900,  and  ended  August  7.  lasting  l'o 
days.  The  subject  was  a  woman  33  years  old.  height  5  feet,  weighing 
90  pounds. 

The  number  of  meals  taken  was  40,  equivalent  to  1  woman  for  20 
days  or  1  man  for  16  days.  The  results  of  the  study  are  shown  in  the 
following  table. 


12 


Table  3. —  Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  Xo.  328. 

Cost  and  composition  of  food  per  person  per  day. 

Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  of  different  food 
materials.! 

Cost. 

P^°"         Fat 
tern.        rfil- 

Sugar, 
starch, 

etc. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Fuel 
value. 

VEGETABLE    POOD. 

Fresh  fruits:  Apples,  13,381  grams,  SI. 18  (4):  apri- 
cots, 5.291  grams.  46  cents    (6);    bananas,   454 

grams,  10  cents  (30) :  figs,  510  grams,  10  cent-  (7); 
grapes.    4.054  grams.   45  cents    (32):   olives,  80 
grams,  3  cents   (34);   oranges.  2,693  grams.   40 
cents  (17);  peaches,  4,621  grams,  40  cents  (9): 
pears,  1.418  grams,  12  cents  (11);  plums,  red,  1,080 
grams,  9  cents  (15  j 

16.7 

.1 

2.0 

Grams.    Grams. 
9               3 

Oram*. 

100 
1 

Gram*. 

38 

Calories. 

630 

Dried  fruits:  Dates.  28  grams,  2  cents  (19) 

5 

Vegetable  oils:  Olive  oil,  269  grams,  40  cent-  (42).. 

13 

120 

Honev,  18  grams.  1  cent  (41 ) 

1 
8 

2 

5 

Nnts:  Almonds.  897  grams,  30  cents  (21) ;  pignolias, 
1,035  grams.  60  cents  (22);  pine  nuts,  57  grams,  1 
cent  (24 1 ;  walnuts.  224  grams,  7  cents  (40) 

4.9 

24              43 

540 

Total  vegetable  food 

23.7             33             59           110             40 

1,300 

aThe  numbers  in  parentheses  after  each  food  material  in  this  and  succeeding  tables  (Nos.  3-8) 
refer  to  corresponding  numbers  in  the  second  column  of  Tables  1  and  2.  p.  10. 

The  tentative  standard  for  a  woman  at  light  work  calls  for  90 
grams  protein  and  2,500  calories  (see  p.  18).  From  the  table  it 
appears  that  the  daily  diet  (33  grams  protein  and  1,300  calories)  is  far 
below  the  tentative  standard.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the 
subject  was  a  very  small  woman,  taking  almost  no  physical  exercise. 
She  believed,  as  do  fruitarians  generally,  that  people  need  far  less  raw 
than  cooked  food. 

DIETARY  STUDY  OF  A  FRUITARIAN  (No.  329). 

The  study  continued  for  25  days  in  July  and  August.  1900. 

The  subject  was  a  woman  30  years  old,  weighing  101  pounds.  The 
number  of  meals  taken  was  equivalent  to  1  woman  for  25  days  or  1 
man  for  20  days.     Table  1  shows  in  detail  the  results  of  this  study. 

Table  4. — Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  No.  329. 

Cost  and  composition  of  food  per  person  per  day. 


Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  of  different  food 
materials. 

Cost. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Sugar, 

starch, 

etc. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Fuel 
value. 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Vegetables:  Celery.  113  grams.  2  cents  (27);  toma- 
tu.--.  3.tii'4  gram-.  32  c-nts  (?8) 

Cents. 
1.4 

9.3 

.2 

1.6 

.5 

4.2 

Grains. 
2 

5 

Grams. 
1 

Grams. 

'< 

45 
3 

Grams. 
1 

24 

1 

Calories. 
40 

Fresh   fruits:  Apples.  Astrachan,  9,130  grams,  80 
cent-  i  4  i :  apnot >t.-,  3.360 grams,  30  cents  (6) ;  rigs, 
408  grams.  7  cents  <  7  :  olives,  630  grams,  18 cents 
(34);  oranges,  822  grams.  10  cents  (17);  peaches, 
4,711  grams.  52  cent-  (9);  pears,  1.755  grams,  16 
cents  (11 1:  plums.  Japanese,  900 grams,  10  cents 
(13  r.  plums,  red,  1,080  grams,  10  cents  (15) 

Dried  fruit>:  Dates.  y3  grains.  3  cents  (19);  raisins, 
60  grams  3  cent4;  (36) 

370 
15 

Vegetable  oils:  Olive  oil.  255  grams.  40  cents  (42).. 

10 

95 

11 

- 

45 

Nnts:  Almonds.  1,067  grams,  36  cents  (21) ;  Brazil 
nuts.   146  grain-.   5  cents    (38);    pignolias,    766 
grams,  42  cents  (22);  pine  nuts.    142  grains.    3 
cents  (24 1;  walnut-.  672  grams,  jo  cents  (40) 

18 

39 

475 

-  Total  vegetable  food 

17.2 

25 

57 

72 

27 

1,040 

13 

The  table  shows  that  the  food  eaten  during  the  test  was  even  less 
than  that  consumed  in  the  previous  dietary.  One  reason  for  this  was 
the  fact  that  the  subject  was.  for  part  of  the  time  at  least,  under  great 
mental  strain  and  did  not  have  her  usual  appetite.  Even  this  small 
amount  of  food,  however,  judging  by  her  appearance  and  manner, 
seemed  sufficient  for  her  needs,  enabling  her  to  do  her  customary 
housework  and  take  care  of  her  two  nieces  and  nephew,  the  subjects 
of  dietary  studies  Nos.  330,  331,  332,  and  333. 

DIETARY  STUDY  OF  A  FRUITARIAN  (No.  330). 

The  study  began  July  18,  1900,  and  continued  for  28  days.  The 
subject  was  a  girl  13  years  old,  weighing  75-J  pounds. 

The  number  of  meals  taken,  56,  was  equivalent  to  1  girl  for  28  days  or 
1  man  for  20  days.  The  subject  had  lived  in  the  conventional  way  until 
she  was  over  6  years  of  age,  and  since  being  placed  upon  the  fruitarian 
diet  had  often  expressed  a  desire  for  other  foods.  She  was  given 
cereals  and  vegetables  when  she  craved  them,  but  her  aunt  states 
"that  she  never  looks  or  feels  so  well  when  she  has  much  starchy  food, 
and  she  always  returns  to  her  next  meal  of  uncooked  food  with  an 
increased  appreciation  of  its  superiority." 

In  Table  5  is  given  the  results  of  this  study. 

Table  5.—  Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  No.  330. 


Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  of  different  food 
materials. 


Cost  and  composition  of  food  per  person  per  day. 


Cost. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Sugar,     rrndp 


Fuel 

value. 


VEGETABLE   FOOD. 


Cereals,  prepared:  1,091  grams,  30  cents  (25) 

Fresh  fruits:  Apples,  Astrachan,  6,640  grams.  46 
cents  (4);  apricots,  8,190  grams,  72  cents  (6);  figs, 
340 grams, 6  cents  (7);  olives,  130  grams, 3  cents 
(34) ;  peaches,  13,137 grams,  $1.16  (9) ;  plums,  Jap- 
anese, 4,059  grams,  54  cents  (13) ;  plums,  red,  5,960 
grams,  53  cents  (15) 

Dried  fruits:  Dates,  47  grams,  2  cents  (19);  raisins, 
278  grams,  6  cents  (36)  

Vegetable  oils:  Olive  oil,  305  grams,  34  cents  (42)  . . 

Honey,  25  grams,  1  cent  (41) 

Nuts:  Almonds,  2,239  grams,  75  cents  (21);  Brazil 
nuts,  97  grams,  4  cents  (38) ;  pine  nuts,  28  grams, 
1  cent  (24);  walnuts,  1,330  grams, 37  cents  (40)... 

Total  vegetable  food 


Gents.     Gram*. 
1.1  5 


1.2 


19.0 


26 


Grams. 


Grams.   Grams. 
31    


62 

7  I. 


39 


-y2 


111 


It 


Calories. 
150 


485 


100 
5 


465 


1,235 


The  commonly  accepted  American  dietary  standard  for  a  child  13 
years  old  and  of  average  activity  calls  for  about  0.6  or  0.7  as  much 
protein  and  energy  as  for  a  man  at  ordinary  work  (see  p.  18),  or  not 
far  from  90  grams  of  protein  and  2,450  calories  of  energy.  The  food 
consumed  per  day  by  this  child  contained  26  grams  protein,  52  grams 
fat,  and  157  grams  carbohydrates,  together  furnishing  1,235  calories, 


14 

the  protein  used  in  the  dietary  being  less  than  one-third,  and  the  fuel 
value  only  about  60  per  cent  of  that  called  for.  Notwithstanding  the 
facts  brought  out  by  this  comparison,  the  subject  had  all  the  appear- 
ances of  a  well-fed  child  in  excellent  health  and  spirits. 

DIETARY  STUDY  OF  A  FRUITARIAN   (No.   331). 

The  study  began  July  18,  1900,  and  continued  for  22  days.  The 
subject  was  a  boy  (brother  of  the  subject  of  study  No.  330)  9  years 
old,  weighing  43  pounds  at  the  beginning  and  45  pounds  at  the  end  of 
the  experiment — a  gain  of  2  pounds.  It  was  not  practicable  to  weigh 
the  subject  without  clothes,  but  the  same  clothes  were  worn  and  the 
same  scales  were  used  for  both  weighings.  The  gain  was  undoubtedly 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  family  had  been  in  straitened  circumstances 
and  the  subject  had  a  more  abundant  diet  during  the  study  than  for 
some  time  previous  to  it. 

The  number  of  meals  eaten  was  44,  equivalent  to  1  boy  for  22  days 
or  1  man  for  15  days.  The  table  following  gives  the  details  of  the 
study. 

Table  6. —  Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  Xo.  331. 


Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  of  different  food 
materials. 


VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Fresh  fruits:  Apples,  Astrachan,  S,9fo  grams.  60 
cents  (4);  apricots,  7,910  grams,  80 cents  (6);  figs, 
227  grams,  4  cents  (7);  olives,  80  grams,  2  cents 
(34);  peaches.  14.745 gram*.  81.30(9);  pears.2,265 
grams,  20  cents  (11 ) ;  plums,  Japanese,  357  grams, 
5  cents  (13);  plums,  red,  1,640  grams,  12  oents 
(15) 

Dried  fruits:  Dates,  47  grams,  2  cents  (19);  raisins, 
278  grams,  6  cents  (36) 

Vegetable  oils:  Olive  oil,  131  grams,  13  cents  (42) . . 

Honey,  39  grams,  1  cent  (41) 

Nuts:  Almonds,  1,325  grams.  45  cents  (21):  Brazil 
nuts.  97  grams,  3  cents  (38) ;  pignolias  369  grams. 
20  cents  (22);  pine  nuts,  567  grams,  12  cents  (24); 
walnuts.  798  grams,  23  cents  (40)  


Total  vegetable  food. 


Cost  and  composition  of  food  per  person  per  day. 


Cost, 


Pro- 


Cents.     Grams. 


14.2 
.4 


18 


Sugar. 
Fat.      starch, 
etc. 


Grains.    Grams. 


17 


56 


102 


Crude 
fiber. 


Grams. 


Fuel 
value. 


Calories. 


580 


50 


565 


1,255 


Although  this  bo}-  was  4  years  younger  than  his  sister,  the  subject 
of  the  preceding  dietary  study,  he  consumed  about  the  same  amount 
of  food  per  day,  the  diet  furnishing  27  grams  protein,  56  grams  fat, 
152  grams  carbohydrates,  and  1,255  calories.  He  therefore  approached 
more  closely  to  the  commonly  accepted  standard  for  a  boy  of  his  age, 
65  grams  protein  and  1,750  calories,  than  did  his  sister,  although  here 
again  the  difference  is  large. 

DIETARY   STUDY   OF   A   FRUITARIAN  (No.   332). 

The  study  continued  for  25  days  in  July  and  August,  1900.  The 
subject,  a  sistei  to  the  subjects  of  dietary  studies  Nos.  330  and  331, 


15 

was  0  years  old,  weighing  30.5  pounds  when  the  study  began  and  33 
pounds  at  its  conclusion.  This  subject  had  been  very  delicate  as  a 
baby,  and  her  family  stated  that  she  did  not  begin  to  thrive  until  a 
decoction  of  dried  tigs  was  added  to  the  milk  eaten.  She  was  given 
other  fruit  at  a  very  early  age,  and  as  soon  as  she  could  eat  nuts  was 
confined  closely  to  the  nut  and  fruit  diet  and  has  never  had  anything 
else  except  olive  oil,  hone},  and  occasionally  a  small  quantity  of  green 
vegetables.  It  was  stated  that  she  often  craved  lettuce.  The  subject 
was  very  small  for  her  age,  being  about  10  pounds  under  what  is 
usually  considered  the  average  weight  and  7  inches  less  than  the  aver- 
age height.  This  is  presumably  partly  due  to  heredity,  as  her  father 
is  a  small  man  and  her  mother  and  grandmother  were  much  below  the 
average  height  and  weight. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  her  only  gain  in  weight  during  the  past 
year  was  made  during  this  dietary  study  and  the  one  immediately  fol- 
lowing (No.  333).  It  seems  fair  to  assume  that  this  can  be  accounted 
for  by  the  fact  that  since  the  food  was  provided  by  those  making  the 
stud}'  and  the  child  was  urged  to  eat  all  she  wanted  of  what  she  most 
preferred,  she  ate  more  than  previously.  Between  these  two  studies 
her  weight  remained  stationary.  During  this  time  she  was  limited  to 
such  fruit  as  came  within  the  means  of  the  family.  For  a  time  they 
could  not  afford  the  pignolias  (pine  kernels),  of  which  she  was  very 
fond,  and  as  apples  became  very  expensive  the  amount  purchased  for 
her  was  limited. 

The  total  number  of  meals  taken  was  50,  equivalent  to  1  girl  for  25 
days  or  1  man  for  13  da}Ts.  The  details  of  the  stud}T  are  shown  in 
Table  7. 

Table  7. —  Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  No.  332. 


Cost  arid  composition  of  food  per  person  per  day. 

Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  of  different  food 
materials. 

Cost. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Sugar, 

starch, 

etc. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Fuel 
value. 

VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Fresh  fruits:   Apples,  Astrachan,  8,383  grams,  55 
cents  (4);  apricots,  6,510 grams, 58  cents  (6);  figs, 
2.040  grams.  35  cents  (7);   oranges,  1,021  grams, 
12  cents  (17);  peaches,  7,520  grams,  66  cents  (9); 
pears,  1,950 grams,  18  cents  (11);  plums,  Japa- 
nese, 630  grams,  8  cents  (13);   plums,  red,  480 
grams,  5  cents  (15) 

Cents. 

10.3 

Grains. 

1 

Grams. 

2 
8* 

Grams. 

66 
8 

Grams. 

31 
4 

Calories. 
445 

Dried  fruits:  Dates,  494  grams,  17  cents  (19);  rai- 
sins, 60  grams,  2  cents  (36) 

55 

Vegetable  oils:  Olive  oil,  202  grams,  23  cents  (42).. 

.9    

.5 
4.6 

11 
12 

, 

45 

Nuts:  Almonds,  1,735  grams,  56  cents  (21);  Brazil 
nuts,    146  grams,  5  cents   (38);    pignolias.   107 
grams,  6  cents  (22);    pine  nuts,  666  grams,  13 
cents  (24);  walnuts,  1,274  grams,  35  cents  (40)  ... 

16 

48 

570 

17. 0             24 

58 

97 

37 

1  190 

This  child  was  only  a  little  over  6  years  old,  and  small  for  her  age; 
therefore  it  seems  fairer  to  compare  her  dietary  with  the  standard  for 


16 

2  to  6  years  than  with  that  for  0  to  9  years.  The  tentative  standard 
for  a  child  2  to  6  years  old  calls  for  about  0.4  the  protein  required  by 
a  man  at  moderate  work  (see  p.  18),  or  50  grams  protein  and  1,420 
calories  of  energy.  Since  the  child  received  on  an  average  daily  24 
grams  protein,  58  grams  fat,  and  134  grams  carbohydrates,  together 
furnishing  1,190  calories,  it  appears  that  the  present  dietary  is  defi- 
cient in  protein  and  fuel  value.  The  protein  consumed  in  the  present 
instance  is  less  than  that  required  according  to  the  tentative  standard 
(25  grams)  for  a  child  from  1  to  2  years  old.  At  the  same  time  the 
subject  appeared  to  be  perfectly  well  and  was  exceedingly  active.  She 
impressed  one  as  being  a  healthy  child,  but  looked  younger  than  6 
years. 

DIETARY  STUDY  OF  A  FRUITARIAN   (No.   333). 

This  study,  undertaken  in  connection  with  the  digestion  experiment 
reported  hereafter  (p.  21),  began  March  23,  1901,  and  continued  10 
da}rs.  The  subject  was  the  same  as  in  dietary  study  No.  332,  the 
interval  between  the  two  studies  being  about  eight  and  one-half 
months.  The  subject's  seventh  birthday  occurred  during  this  time. 
Her  weight  at  the  commencement  of  the  study  was  34  pounds  and  at  the 
end  35  pounds.     This  increase  in  weight  has  alread\T  been  referred  to. 

The  total  number  of  meals  eaten  was  20,  equivalent  to  1  child  for  10 
days  or  1  man  for  5  days.    The  details  of  the  study  are  given  in  Table  8. 

Table  8. —  Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  Xo.  333. 


Cost  and  composition  of  food  per  person  per  day. 

Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  of  different  food 
materials. 

Cost. 

S°n.        ** 

; 

Sugar, 

starch, 

etc. 

Crude        Fuel 
fiber        value. 

VEGETABLE  FOOD 

Fresh  fruits  :  Apples,  pippin,  4,763  grams,  60  cents 
(2);  bananas,  1,106 grams,  15cents (30);  oranges, 
8,477  grams,  SI  (17) 

Cents. 

17.5 

.5 

1.5 

.5 

7.5 

Grams. 
8 

Grams. 
1 

Grams. 
113 

Grams. 

Calories. 
525 

Dried  fruits:  Dates,  31  grams,  5  cents  (19) 

1 

1 

Vegetable  oils :  Olive  oil,  92  grams,  15  cents  (42)  . . 

9 

85 
5 

1 

ii 

Nuts:  Almonds,  530  grams,  20  cents  (21);  pigno- 
lias,  652  grams,  40 cents  (22);  walnuts,  504  grams, 
15  cents  (40) 

32 

r. 

2                760 

Total  vegetable  food 

27.5             40             72           126 

8 

1,385 

The  average  daily  diet  furnished  40  grams  protein,  72  grams  fat,  and 
134  grams  carbohydrates,  the  fuel  value  being  1,385  calories.  The 
results  are  not  far  from  the  accepted  standard  for  a  child  between  2  and 
6  years  (50  grams  protein  and  1,400  calories),  but  much  less  than  those 
for  a  child  6  to  9  years  old  (65  grams  protein  and  1,750  calories). 
More  protein  was  consumed  in  this  dietary  than  in  any  of  the  other 
five  studied,  but  even  this  amount  is  only  about  three-fourths  of  the 


17 

amount  commonly  supposed  to  he  needed.  This  child  was  just  7  years 
old,  but  as  she  was  small  for  her  age  it  seems  fairer  to  compare  her 
dietary  with  that  of  a  child  of  2  to  5  years  than  that  of  one  6  to  9 
years  old. 

DISCUSSION  OF  FRUITARIAN  DIETARIES. 

The  foods  used  in  these  studies  were  almost  exclusively  fruits  and 
nuts,  articles  which  are  used  in  the  ordinary  household  more  as  lux- 
uries or  accessories  than  as  staple  articles  of  diet.  Hone}^  (a  food 
gathered  from  flowers  and  fruit)  and  olive  oil  (expressed  from  a  fruit) 
were  also  included.  The  daily  diet  of  the  fruitarians,  however,  con- 
tained the  same  kind  of  chemical  constituents  as  the  usual  mixed  diet. 
The  bulk  of  the  protein  is  usually  supplied  by  meat,  fish,  milk,  eggs, 
cheese,  cereals,  and  legumes;  the  fat  by  butter  and  other  animal  fats, 
olive  oil,  etc.,  and  the  carbohydrates  by  bread  and  other  cereal  foods, 
starch,  and  sugar.  In  the  fruitarian  dietaries  the  protein  was  sup- 
plied chiefly  by  nuts,  the  fat  by  nuts  and  olive  oil,  and  the  carboh}^- 
drates  by  the  fruit  and  honey.  The  fruit  also  supplied  a  little  protein 
and  fat  or  ether  extract. 

The  carbohydrates  in  the  ordinary  diet  consist  of  starches,  grape 
and  fruit  sugar  (dextrose  and  levulose),  cane  sugar,  and  crude  fiber. 
The  foods  eaten  by  these  "  fruitarians ,?  furnished  little  starch,  the 
bulk  of  the  carbohydrates  being  crude  fiber  and  the  different  sorts  of 
sugar. 

The  nuts  and  dried  fruits  are  concentrated  foods;  that  is,  they  con- 
tain a  fairly  low  percentage  of  water  and  a  correspondingly  high  per- 
centage of  nutritive  material  in  proportion  to  their  bulk.  Nuts,  like 
the  cereal  grains  and  many  other  foods,  are  naturally  concentrated. 
The  dried  fruits  are  concentrated  by  evaporating  the  water  originally 
present  in  the  fresh  fruit.  GeneralhT  speaking,  the  concentrated  foods 
are  cheaper  sources  of  nutrients  than  the  succulent  foods.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  in  the  ordinary  diets  concentrated  foods  are  usu- 
ally diluted  before  they  are  eaten.  Thus,  floui\  which  is  comparatively 
dry,  is  wet  with  milk  or  water  when  made  into  bread;  oatmeal,  rice, 
etc.,  are  cooked  in  water;  dry  beans  are  soaked  and  then  cooked  in 
various  ways,  or,  like  dr}^  peas  and  other  legumes,  are  made  into 
soups  or  different  dishes  which  contain  more  or  less  water. 

The  fruitarians  did  not  cook  their  food,  and  did  not  dilute  their  con- 
centrated foods  (nuts  and  evaporated  fruits). 

The  results  of  the  dietaries  are  summarized  in  Table  9  below.  For 
purposes  of  comparison  they  are  given  as  determined,  that  is,  the 
amount  eaten  per  woman  or  per  child  per  day,  as  the  case  may  be. 
They  are  also  recalculated  to  show  the  equivalent  amounts  per  man 
per  day.  In  making  the  calculations  it  was  assumed  that  the  woman 
10056— No.  107—02 2 


18 

would  consume  seven-tenths  as  much  as  a  man  at  moderate  muscular 
work.  The  usual  factor  for  women  is  0.8.  It  is  believed  the  factor 
used  is  fairer  in  this  particular  case,  as  the  women  were  small  of 
stature,  weighed  less  than  the  average,  and  had  light  exercise.  The 
usual  factors  have  been  used  in  calculating  the  results  for  children, 
namely : 

1  meal  of  child  6  to  9  years  old  equivalent  to  0.5  meal  of  man. 
1  meal  of  child  13  years  old  equivalent  to  0.7  meal  of  man. 

The  table  also  includes  for  purposes  of  comparison  the  results  of 
Voit's  study  with  a  man  living  on  bread,  fruit,  and  oil;  the  average 
results  of  a  number  of  American  dietary  studies,  and  the  commonly 
accepted  standards  for  a  man  at  light  and  moderate  muscular  work  and 
a  woman  at  light  work. 

Table  9. — Comparison  of  daily  dietaries  of  fruitarians  urith  commonly  accepted  standards. 


Cost. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Fat. 


Carbo-       Fuel 
draL.     value- 


Nutri- 
tive 
ratio, 
lto— 


VALUES   AS   DETERMINED. 


Woman,  33  years  old.  dietary  No.  328 

Woman.  30  years  old,  dietarv  No.  329 

Girl,  13  years  old,  dietary  No.  330 

Bov,  9  vears  old,  dietarv  No.  331 

Girl,  6  years  old,  dietary  No.  332 

Girl,  7  years  old,  dietary  No.  333 


VALUES  CALCULATED  TO   BASIS  OF   MAN   AT   MOD- 
ERATE MUSCULAR   WORK. 

Woman,  33  years  old,  dietary  No.  328 

Woman,  30  vears  old,  dietarv  No.  329 

Girl,  13  years  old,  dietary  No.  330 

Bov,  9  vears  old,  dietarv  No.  331 

Girl,  6  years  old,  dietary  No.  332 

Girl,  7  years  old,  dietary  No.  333 


Cents. 
23.7 
17.2 
19.0 
19.9 
17.0 
27.5 


33.9 
24.6 
27.1 
39.8 
34.0 
55.0 


Grams.    Grams.    Grams.    Calorics. 


OTHER    DIETARY   STUDIES. 


German  vegetarian  a 

Average  of  53  studies  of  well-to-do  families  in  the 
United  States 


DIETARY   STANDARDS. 


Man  with  light  muscular  work  ( Atwater) 

Man  with  moderate  muscular  work  ( Voit  | 

Man  with  moderate  muscular  work  (Atwater) 
Woman  with  light  muscular  work  (Atwater).. 


33 

25  1 

26  I 
27 
24 
40 


54 
103 


112 

118 

125 

90 


84 

81 

71 

112 

116 

144 


22 
138 


:,.; 


150 
99 
157 
152 
134 
134 


214 
141 
224 
304 

268 
268 


n73 
436 


.500 


1,300 
1,040 
1,235 
1,255 

1,190 
1,385 


1,850 
1,480 
1,760 
2, 510 
2,  375 
2,765 


■2.  775 
3.500 


3,150 
3,055 
3,500 
2,250 


9.1 
10.5 
10.3 
11.1 

7.4 


9.0 
10.6 
10.4 
11.1 

7.4 


11.6 
7.3 


5.8 
5.3 
5.8 
6.1 


a  Voit,  Ztschr.  Biol.,  25  (1889),  p.  232. 

The  studies  as  a  whole  show  very  small  amounts  of  protein  and 
energy,  the  largest  amounts — 40  grams  protein  and  1,385  calories  of 
energy — being  found  in  No.  333,  the  dietarv  of  a  child  7  years  old. 
When  the  results  are  expressed  per  man  per  day  they  are  seen  to  be 
much  below  the  figures  for  persons  in  the  United  States  in  comfortable 
circumstances  and  engaged  in  moderate  muscular  work.  These  latter 
figures  are  based  on  the  results  of  a  large  number  of  actual  studies, 
and  it  seems  fair  to  assume  that  the}'  show  about  what  is  consumed 
on  an  average.  The  standard  above  referred  to  for  a  man  at  light 
muscular  work  calls  for  112  grams  protein  and  3,150  calories  of  energy. 


19 

The  fruitarians  consumed  much  less  than  this.  There  are,  however, 
a  number  of  dietary  studies  on  record  in  which  persons  on  an  ordinary 
mixed  diet  have  consumed  as  little  protein  and  energy. 

The  amounts  of  protein  and  energy  in  the  dietary  of  the  fruitarians 
did  not  differ  very  materially  from  similar  values  in  Voit's  study  of  a 
vegetarian,  though  they  consumed  more  fat  and  less  carbohydrates. 
The  German  vegetarian  studied  by  Voit  ate  bread  and  no  nuts.  Other- 
wise his  dietary  was  similar  to  that  of  the  fruitarians.  He  ate  no 
warm  cooked  food.  His  average  daily  diet  consisted  of  131  grams 
pumpernickel,  138  grams  graham  bread,  777  grams  apples,  114  grams 
dried  figs,  247  grams  dates,  66  grams  oranges,  8  grams  olives,  and  21 
grams  olive  oil. 

It  will  be  noted  that  while  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  standards  ranges 
between  5  and  6,  that  of  the  dietaries  here  reported  varies  between 
wide  limits,  with  a  minimum  of  7.1  and  a  maximum  of  11.1. 

As  may  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  dietary  tables,  nearly  three- 
fourths  of  the  protein  and  fat  consumed  were  derived  from  nuts,  which 
form,  however,  less  than  10  per  cent  of  the  total  quantity  of  food 
used,  and  the  outlay  for  which  was  only  about  25  per  cent  of  the  entire 
cost  of  the  food.  The  main  bulk  of  the  total  food  and  of  the  car- 
bohydrates was  furnished  by  the  fresh  fruit,  which  also  caused  the 
largest  item  of  expense. 

The  amount  of  crude  fiber  in  the  different  dietaries  ranged  from  8 
grams  per  day  in  No.  333  to  50  grams  in  No.  331,  and  was  on  an  aver- 
age 12  grams.  Whether  these  values  are  higher  or  lower  than  the 
crude  fiber  content  of  the  average  American  diet  can  not  be  said  with 
certainty  owing  to  a  lack  of  data  for  comparison.  In  a  number  of 
foreign  dietaries  summarized  in  a  previous  publication  of  this  Office1 
the  crude  fiber  ranged  from  3.9  to  17.4  grams  per  person  per  da}',  the 
larger  amount  being  found  in  a  diet  composed  of  rice,  barley,  and 
vegetables.  Judging  by  these  values  the  amount  of  crude  fiber  in  the 
fruitarian  dietaries  was  large. 

It  is  a  difficult  matter  to  draw  any  general  conclusions  from  the 
foregoing  dietaries  without  being  unjust  to  the  subjects. 

It  would  appear  upon  examining  the  recorded  data  and  comparing 
the  results  with  commonly  accepted  standards  that  all  the  subjects 
were  decidedly  undernourished,  even  making  allowances  for  their 
light  weight.  But  when  we  consider  that  the  two  adults  have  lived 
upon  this  diet  for  7  }^ears,  and  think  they  are  in  better  health  and 
capable  of  more  work  than  they  ever  were  before,  we  hesitate  to  pro- 
nounce judgment.  The  three  children,  though  below  the  average  in 
height  and  weight,  had  the  appearance  of  health  and  strength.  They 
ran  and  jumped  and  played  all  day  like  ordinaiy  healthy  children,  and 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  21,  p.  64. 


20 

were  said  to  be  unusually  free  from  colds  and  other  complaints  common 
to  childhood. 

The  youngest  child  and  the  only  one  who  has  lived  as  a  fruitarian 
almost  from  infancy,  was  certainly  undeveloped.  Her  bones  were 
very  small,  although  she  showed  no  tendency  toward  rhachitis.  She 
looked  fully  2  years  younger  than  she  was.  Still,  there  are  so  many 
children  who  are  below  the  average  in  development,  whose  dietaries 
conform  to  the  ordinary  standards,  that  it  would  be  unfair  to  draw 
any  conclusions  until  many  more  such  investigations  are  made.  It 
seems  quite  possible,  however,  that  her  condition  may  have  been  due 
in  part  at  least  to  her  having  been  placed  upon  this  diet  at  so  early 
an  age. 

So  far  as  can  be  learned  the  claim  for  the  superiority  of  raw  food 
is  a  matter  of  opinion  or  conjecture,  as  there  are  few  if  any  trust- 
worthy experiments  on  the  subject.  There  is  one  benefit  from  cook- 
ing which  should  not  be  overlooked,  namely,  the  destruction  of 
harmful  bacteria  and  parasites  if  they  are  present.  Both  animal  and 
vegetable  foods,  if  not  handled  and  stored  under  sanitary  conditions, 
may  become  contaminated  and  communicate  disease  to  man. 

The  cost  per  day  as  seen  in  Table  9  varies  from  17  cents  in  dietary 
No.  332  to  27.5  cents  in  No.  333,  the  average  as  determined  being  20.7 
cents  per  person  per  day.  The  values  as  given  per  woman  or  per 
child  per  day  do  not  seem  high;  but  when  the  results  are  recalculated 
to  the  basis  per  man  per  day  the  cost  varies  from  24.6  to  55  cents, 
averaging  35.7  cents.  The  results  of  a  large  number  of  dietary  studies 
made  in  the  United  States  show  that  the  cost  was  on  an  average  not 
far  from  25  cents  per  man  per  day.  In  many  cases  it  was  lower  and 
in  many  others  higher.  As  compared  with  this  amount  the  average 
cost  of  the  fruitarian  dietaries  per  man  per  day  is  seen  to  be  quite 
high.  Furthermore,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  most  of  the  inves- 
tigations were  made  in  the  late  summer,  when  fruit  was  cheap.  In 
the  spring  prices  are  higher,  and  consequently  the  outlay  is  corre- 
spondingly greater,  as  shown  in  dietary  No.  333.  which  was  made  at 
this  season.  It  is  claimed  by  those  who  live  on  a  fruit  and  nut  diet 
that  the  average  daily  outlay  throughout  the  year  is  about  25  cents, 
which  corresponds  quite  closely  with  the  cost  per  man  per  day  of  the 
average  conventional  diet  as  given  above.  It  will  be  remembered 
that  the  fruit,  nuts,  etc.,  were  eaten  raw  and  that  therefore  there  was 
no  expense  for  fuel,  etc.,  for  cooking,  which  is  an  important  item  in 
the  cost  of  the  ordinary  diet.  Some  years  ago  Rutgers '  compared  a 
vegetarian  and  a  mixed  dietary.  The  vegetarian  diet  was  not  limited 
to  fruits  and  nuts,  but  was  made  up  of  beans,  peas,  bread,  etc. ;  some 
butter  was  also  eaten.     The  chief  difference  this  author  noted  was  in 

xZtschr.  Biol.,  25  (1888),  p.  379;  see  also  abstract  in  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  Bui.  45. 


21 

the  cost  of  the  two  diets,  the  vegetarian  being  a  little  cheaper,  as  less 
fuel  was  required  to  prepare  it. 

Waste. — A  very  interesting  point  brought  to  light  by  these  studies 
is  that  there  was  practically  no  waste.  "When  first-quality  food  is 
purchased,  the  refuse  only  has  to  be  taken  into  account:  although  in 
the  case  of  poor  fruit  there  is  always  some  paid  for  which  can  not  be 
eaten,  and  must  be  regarded  as  waste. 

DIGESTION  EXPERIMENT  WITH  A  GIRL. 

The  objects  and  value  of  digestion  experiments  have  been  explained 
in  a  previous  bulletin1  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  need  not 
be  discussed  in  this  report.  While  there  have  been  some  digestion 
experiments.2  and  determinations  of  the  income  and  outgo  of  nitrogen, 
conducted  with  vegetarians  or  with  those  consuming  vegetable  foods 
for  experimental  purposes,  very  few  data  are  at  hand  regarding  the 
digestibility  of  fruits.  The  experiment  here  reported  shows  the 
digestibility  of  the  fruit  and  nut  diet  eaten  by  the  child  in  dietary 
No.  333.  The  experiment  began  March  23.  1901,  and  continued  for 
10  days.  The  average  daily  food  consisted,  as  previously  stated,  of 
4:76  grams  apples.  Ill  grams  bananas,  .sis  grams  oranges,  3  grams 
dates.  1.5  grains  honey.  9  grams  olive  oil,  53  grams  almonds.  65  grams 
pignolias.  and  50  grams  walnuts. 

Lampblack  was  taken  by  the  subject  in  gelatin  capsules  in  order  to 
facilitate  the  separation  of  the  feces  due  to  the  foods  experimented 
with.  The  line  of  demarcation  between  the  portions  of  the  feces 
colored  by  the  lampblack  and  that  not  so  colored  was  not  as  sharp  as 
could  be  desired,  but  sufficiently  so  to  enable  the  separation  to  be  quite 
accurately  made.     The  feces  were  passed  about  noon  every  day. 

The  total  weight  of  the  feces  excreted  during  the  period  of  10  days 
was  1,370  grams,  or  260  grams  water-free.  The  feces  were  collected 
and  were  analyzed  separately,  the  usual  methods  being  followed. 
On  an  average  the  fresh  feces  contained  5.1  per  cent  protein.  6.9  per 
cent  fat.  3.6  per  cent  sugar,  starches,  etc.  (nitrogen-free  extract),  1.2 
per  cent  crude  liber,  and  2.6  per  cent  ash.  the  fuel  value  being  1.1 
calories  per  gram. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  21. 

-I'.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Buls.  21,  p.  53,  and  46,  p.  21. 


22 

Table  10  shows  the  total  nutrients  consumed,  the  amounts  of  each 
excreted  in  the  feces,  and  the  amounts  and  percentages  of  the  different 
nutrients  digested: 

Table  10. — Result  of  digestion  experiment  (No.  241)  with  child  on  fruit  and  nut  diet — 
quantities  for  entire  period,  JO  days. 


Protein. 

Fat. 

Nitrogen- 
free  ex- 
tract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Ash. 

Heat  of 
combus- 
tion. 

Food  eaten 

Grams. 
400 

70 

Grams. 

726 

95 

Grams. 

1,261 

50 

Grams. 
80 
16 

Grams. 
67 
31 

Calories. 
14,840 
a  1,973 

Digested 

330 

82.5 

631 
86.9 

1,211 
96.0 

64 
80.0 

36 
53.7 

12, 867 

Coefficient  of  digestibility  (per  cent) 

86.7 

a  Including  1,560  calories  from  the  feces  and  413  from  the  unoxidized  organic  matter  of  the  urin  e. 

Generally  speaking,  the  food  was  quite  thoroughly  assimilated,  the 
coefficients  of  digestibility  being  about  the  same  as  are  found  in  an 
ordinaiy  mixed  diet.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  according  to  the 
methods  followed  80  per  cent  of  the  crude  fiber  appeared  to  be  digested. 
In  a  previous  publication  of  this  Office1  the  results  of  a  number  of  for- 
eign experiments  on  the  digestibility  of  crude  fiber  b}T  man  are  summar- 
ized. The  coefficient  of  digestibility  ranged  from  30  to  91.4  per  cent,  the 
former  value  being  found  in  a  diet  consisting  of  bread  made  from 
mixed  wheat  and  rye,  and  the  latter  in  a  diet  made,  of  rice,  vegetables, 
and  meat.  The  digestibility"  of  the  protein  was  rather  less  than  has 
been  found  in  the  ordinary  mixed  diet,  owing  to  the  presence  in  the 
latter  of  considerable  animal  food.  Many  experiments  have  shown 
that  on  an  average  the  protein  of  animal  food  is  more  readily  digesti- 
ble than  that  of  vegetable  food. 


METABOLIC  NITROGEN. 

In  determining  the  digestibility  of  protein  the  usual  method  was 
followed — that  is,  the  amount  digested  was  assumed  to  be  the  differ- 
ence between  the  amount  taken  into  the  bod}^  in  the  food  and  the 
amount  excreted  in  the  feces.  In  addition,  however,  the  nitrogen  was 
determined  after  extracting  the  so-called  metabolic  products  in  the 
feces  by  treatment  with  ether,  alcohol,  hot  water,  and  cold  limewater, 
according  to  the  method  described  by  Woods  and  Merrill  in  a  previous 
publication  of  this  Office.2 


aU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  21,  p.  64. 
2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  85,  p.  35. 


23 


The  total  nitrogen  in  the  untreated  feces,  in  the  treated  feces,  and  the 
metabolic  nitrogen  in  the  foregoing  experiment  is  shown  in  Table  li: 

Table  11. — Total  nitrogen  in  feces  <m<l  nitrogen  corrected/or  metabolic  products. 


First  day.... 
Second  dav  . 
Third  day... 
Fourth  dav  . 
Fifth  day  . . . 
Sixth  day  ... 
Seventh  dav 
Eighth  day  . 
Ninth  dav  . . 
Tenth  dav  . . 


Total.... 
Average 


Dav. 


Nitrogen 

Nitrogen 

Meta- 

Feces. 

treated 
feces. 

in  treated 
feces. 

bolic  ni- 
trogen. 

(Trams. 

Per  cent. 

l'i  r  >■>  at. 

l\r  cent. 

82 

1.0 

0.6 

0.4 

256 

.6 

.3 

.3 

208 

.  / 

.4 

.3 

44 

1.9 

1.2 

.7 

242 

.9 

.D 

.4 

129 

.6 

.4 

.2 

92 

1.1 

.6 

.5 

118 

.8 

.4 

.4 

111 

.9 

.5 

.4 

88 

.  i 

.4 

.3 

1,370 

9.2 

5.3 

3.9 

137 

.9 

.0 

.4 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  the  feces  are  not  made  up  entirely  of 
undigested  residue  of  food,  but  contain  quite  large  amounts  of  other 
waste  materials,  usually  designated  by  English  writers  as  metabolic 
products.  This  term  as  ordinarily  used  includes  not  only  the  metabolic 
products,  strictly  speaking — such  as  the  residues  from  the  bile,  mucus, 
saliva,  gastric  juices,  pancreatic  juices,  and  other  digestive  secretions — 
but  also  worn-out  particles  from  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
intestines,  and  other  debris  from  the  walls  of  the  stomach,  etc.  The 
results  of  recent  investigations  indicate  that  the  digestion  of  food 
materials  is  more  complete  and  the  proportion  of  metabolic  products 
in  the  feces  is  larger  than  was  formerly  supposed. 

The  average  amount  of  metabolic  nitrogen — that  is,  nitrogen  removed 
by  the  solvents  used — in  the  daily  feces  in  the  above  experiment  was 
±2  per  cent.  The  amount  of  undissolved  nitrogen — that  is,  the  nitro- 
gen which  was  derived  from  undigested  residues  of  the  food  eaten — 
was  not  far  from  one-half  of  the  total  shown  in  the  untreated  feces. 
In  their  experiments  with  a  man  on  a  bread  diet  Woods  and  Merrill1 
found  that  on  an  average  68  per  cent  of  the  total  nitrogen  of  the  feces 
was  undissolved  by  similar  treatment,  thus  suggesting  that  about  one- 
third  of  the  nitrogen  in  the  feces  was  from  metabolic  products  and 
two-thirds  from  undigested  food.  By  use  of  different  methods  these 
latter  investigators  got  other  results  indicating  much  larger  propor- 
tions of  metabolic  nitrogen.  These  determinations,  therefore,  can 
not  be  used  as  a  basis  of  any  definite  conclusions. 

BALANCE  OF  INCOME  AND  OUTGO  OF  NITROGEN. 

In  connection  with  the  digestion  experiment  reported  above  the 
urine  was  collected  and  its  nitrogen  content  determined.     The  aver- 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bnl.  85. 


24 

age  amount  of  nitrogen  consumed  per  da}7,  less  that  excreted  in  the 
urine  and  feces,  showed  whether  the  subject  was  gaining  or  losing- 
nitrogen  on  the  fruit  and  nut  diet  followed.  The  total  urine  amounted 
to  6,940  grams,  containing  29.62  grams  nitrogen.  On  an  average  the 
daily  food  contained  6.4  grams  nitrogen,  the  urine  3  grams,  and  the 
feces  1.2  grams.  There  was,  therefore,  an  average  daily  gain  of  2.2 
grams  nitrogen,  equivalent  to  13.7  grams  protein. 

The  subject  gained  nitrogen,  although  on  a  diet  containing  much 
less  nitrogen  than  the  tentative  standard  demands.  No  extended  com- 
ments can  be  made  on  these  results,  because  as  before  stated  there 
are  few  if  any  similar  investigations  at  hand  for  comparison.  Fur- 
ther investigations  along  this  line  are  needed. 


DIETARY  STUDIES  OF  CHINESE. 


INTRODUCTION. 

We  often  hear  those  who  recommend  a  vegetarian  diet  say,  "See 
how  much  hard  work  the  Chinamen  can  do,  and  they  live  almost 
entirely  upon  rice,"  and  many  believe  that  the  Chinese  to  a  great 
extent  are  vegetarians.  We  have,  all  of  us,  probably,  idhT  wondered 
if  this  were  true,  but  have  not  had  sufficient  knowledge  to  justify  us 
in  assenting  to  or  contradicting  the  assertion. 

So  far  as  can  be  learned,  no  dietary  studies  of  Chinese  have  been 
reported.  A  number  of  such  investigations  have  been  made,  however, 
with  Japanese,  Javanese,  and  Malays.1  Considerable  data  are  also  on 
record  regarding  the  food  consumption  of  different  classes  in  India.2 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  dietary  habits  of  the  Chinese  resemble 
those  of  the  Japanese,  and  the  same  holds  good  to  a  considerable  extent 
for  all  the  other  Oriental  races.  The  available  data  show  that  rice  is  a 
very  important  article  of  diet  in  the  East,  taking  the  place  which  bread 
and  similar  cereal  foods  occupy  in  the  diet  of  Western  races.  How- 
ever, it  appears  that  many  foods  besides  rice  are  eaten.  Thus,  in 
Japan  meat  and  especially  tish  are  consumed  by  those  who  have  the 
opportunity  and  means  to  procure  them,  while  fresh,  dried,  and  salted 
vegetables,  etc.,  bean  cheese,  and  other  foods  comparatively  rich  in 
protein  which  are  made  from  soy  beans 3  are  eaten  in  large  quantities 
b}T  all  classes. 

How  far  the  Chinese  dietary  actually  differs  from  the  Japanese,  and 
the  Chinese  dietary  in  America  from  that  in  China,  it  is  not  possible  to 
say.  It  is  generally  true  that  diet  is  modified  by  environment,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  although  they  are  conservative  in  such  matters, 
the  Chinese  in  the  United  States  have,  to  some  extent  at  least,  adopted 
American  food  habits.     But  that  the  bulk  of  their  food  is  Chinese  is 

1  For  summaries  of  this  work  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations 
Bui.  21,  p.  180,  and  Bui.  45,  pp.  59-61. 

2  Food  Grains  of  India.     Church.     London,  1886. 

3  The  manufacture  of  bean  cheese  and  similar  foods  is  described  in  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  21,  p.  193;  Bui.  68,  p.  35;  Farmers'  Bui.  58, 
p.  20;  and  in  Sanitary  Home,  2  (1900),  p.  55. 

25 


26 

shown  by  a  visit  to  the  Chinese  markets  in  any  American  city  where 
there  is  a  considerable  colony  of  them. 

Whatever  the  diet  of  the  Chinese  in  America,  the  presumption  is 
that  it  must  be  suited  to  their  needs  and  must  supply  the  energy 
necessary  for  a  large  amount  of  physical  work.  No  Calif  or  ni  an  can 
doubt  that  the  Chinaman  is  capable  of  great  physical  exertion,  for  it 
has  been  clearly  demonstrated. 

While  it  is  generally  conceded  that  a  strong  white  man  accustomed 
to  the  same  kind  of  work  can  do  20  per  cent  more  work  than  a  China- 
man where  the  conditions  are  favorable,  it  has  been  found  that  under 
adverse  circumstances,  such  as  long  hours,  great  heat,  or  exposure  to 
cold  and  dampness,  a  Chinaman  can  not  only  do  more  work,  but  can 
stand  the  strain  better.  In  California  it  appears  that  he  can  be 
depended  upon  to  work  through  the  season,  while  the  white  man  is 
often  obliged  to  rest  at  the  most  important  time. 

As  regards  their  work  in  the  cities,  we  are  all  familiar  with  the 
sight  of  the  Chinese  fruit  and  vegetable  peddler  with  his  baskets  sus- 
pended by  ropes  to  the  pole  that  he  carries  across  one  shoulder.  Few 
Americans  could  walk  as  he  does  for  hours  at  a  stretch,  often  up  and 
down  hill,  burdened  with  a  load  of  from  300  to  400  pounds  in  the 
baskets.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  ability  to  perform  the  task  is 
due  entirely  to  physical  strength;  much  is  owing  to  training,  probably 
also  to  inheritance,  since  for  ages  the  muscles  employed  have  been 
developed  by  this  kind  of  work.  But  at  all  events  there  is  a  great 
amount  of  energy  required,  and  it  must  necessarily,  like  all  energy  for 
the  work  done  by  the  body,  come  from  the  food  eaten.  And  what  is 
that  food?  Is  it,  as  so  many  affirm,  almost  entirety  rice?  It  was  to 
answer  such  questions  that  the  present  investigation  was  undertaken. 

In  choosing  subjects  for  the  dietary  studies  reported  herewith  it  was 
thought  best  to  select  men  engaged  in  different  kinds  of  work,  so  that 
comparisons  with  the  commonly  accepted  dietary  standards  for  Cauca- 
sians performing  different  amounts  of  work  could  be  made.  The  studies 
were  made  with  (1)  the  family  of  a  Chinese  dentist,  (2)  employees  in  a 
Chinese  laundry,  and  (3)  the  laborers  on  a  truck  farm,  styled  in  Cali- 
fornia a  vegetable  garden.  The  first  represents  a  professional  man, 
with  little  muscular  work;  the  second,  men  at  moderate  indoor  work; 
and  the  third,  men  at  severe  outdoor  work. 

COMPOSITION  OF  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

In  connection  with  the  dietar}T  studies  a  number  of  analyses  of  food 
materials  were  made,  the  analytical  methods  adopted  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists  being  followed.1  A  number  of 
foods  were  not  analyzed,  as  it  was  believed  their  composition  could 
be  accurately  calculated  from  former  analyses. 

lU.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Division  of  Chemistry  Bui.  46,  revised. 


'27 

The  Chinese  in  general  bay  meat  in  small  quantities  and  endeavor 
to  procure  a  maximum  of  edible  portion  and  a  minimum  of  refuse. 
The  beef  used  in  these  studies  was  from  the  round,  and  very  lean.  No 
hone  was  included  and  there  was  no  refuse.  The  other  cut-  of  meat 
and  the  poultry  were  the  usual  article-,  a-  were  also  some  of  the  fish  and 
shellfish.  Others  (dried  shrimp,  dried  abalone,  and  dried  squid)  were 
Chinese  food-.  The  dairy  products,  the  eggs,  bread,  rice.  cake,  ver- 
micelli, oatmeal,  bananas,  sugar,  and  many  of  the  vegetables  were  the 
usual  food-  familiar  to  all.  Vermicelli  and  similiar  paste.-  are  ordi- 
narily regarded  a-  typical  Italian  food.-,  hut  it  i-  stated  on  apparently 
ofood  authority  that  a  similar  product  ha-  lone"  heen  known  in  the 
Ea.-t.1 

The  bean  cheese,  fresh  and  dried,  the  bean  sprouts,  salted  radish, 
bamboo  shoot-,  algae,  dried  fungus,  dried  lily  flowers,  and  many  of  the 
green  vegetables  were  articles  which  as  food  material-  are  known  to 
few.  if  any.  American  families.  These  peculiar  vegetable  food- have 
been  described  in  a  previous  publication  of  this  Office.* 

In  Table  1  i>  shown  the  composition  of  such  article-  as  contained 
refuse,  and  in  Table  '2  the  composition  of  all  the  material-  analyzed 
which  contained  no  refuse,  while  Table  3  shows  the  composition  of  the 
articles  not  analyzed,  but  whose  composition  was  quoted  from  previous 
publication-.  The  figures  in  the  column  headed  *' reference  number" 
refer  to  corresponding  numbers  in  parentheses  after  the  different  items 
in  Tabic-  4.  5,  and  6  and  serve  to  indicate  the  value-  used  for  the  per- 
centage composition  of  the  various  foods  in  computing  the  results  of 
the  studies. 

Table  1.  —  Composition  uoj  pure}  food  matt  rials  at  contain  tned 

matter — comp 

Refer-  C.,rho-  Fuel 

Food  materials.  ence       Refuse.      Water.      Protein.       Fat.     ,„.*,!:,   ,      Ash.     value  per 

N  h>  Urates,  pound. 


aNIMa 


Pork:                                                                  tL        Pact.        Parct.  PercL  Ptr  ct 

Fresh 1            12.5            39.5            12.2  36.0    

feet -           4u.ii           33.2           10.5  15.8    

Poultry:  Chicken 3           J5.o           55.2           17.1  1.9    

Fish: 

4             33.0                   -             13.4  1.9 9 

Salt  fish -                                25.1  j.    3.1    11.3 

Shrimp,  fresh,  cooked.  0 

VEGETABI.K    POOD. 

Vegetables: 

Potatoes,  white 7  15.0  67.1 

White  radish 8  B.0  B4.6 


Pirct.     Calories. 
1,705 


L8  1 

1.1  .3 


15.2 

b.6 


400 


140 


*A  considerate  number  of  samples  of  Japanese  macaroni,  vermicelli,  and  similar 
products  were  collected  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893,  and  analyzed  by 
Prof.  W.  O.  Atwater  and  associates,  but  the  results  have  not  been  published  in  detail. 

-I".  >.  Dept  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bin 


28 


Table  2. — Composition  of  edible  portion  of  food  materials — composition  determined. 


Food  materials. 

Refer- 
ence 
No. 

Water. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 

value  per 
pound. 

ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Beef: 

Round 

9 
10 
11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 

18 
19 
•     20 
21 
22 
23 
24 

25 
26 

27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 

Per  ct. 
66.6 
68.5 
69.5 

42.3 
45.1 
55.4 
4.9 
13.6 
73.6 

76.0 
24.4 
50.6 
69.0 
21.7 
10.4 
87.5 

32.0 
32.7 

34.9 
3.3 

78.9 
95.7 
92.0 
5.0 
92.0 
90.4 
85.2 
75.0 
90.0 
20.0 
80.0 
90.0 

Per  ct. 
24.5 
25. 0 
20.5 

15.4 
14.0 
17.5 
1.1 
22.4 
22.  8 

20.0 
63.3 
31.4 
25.0 
63.1 
39.9 
3.3 

7.7 
7.0 

35.4 

50.8 
2.1 
1.2 
1.2 

14.2 
2.8 
1.8 
1.4 
2.1 
2.7 

13.0 
3.3 
3.2 

Per  ct. 
7.9 
5.5 
9.1 

41.6 
40.0 
26.3 
94.0 
55.  7 
2.5 

2.6 
5.4 
3.9 
1.7 
4.3 
3.5 
3.5 

1.6 
1.5 

18.8 

29.5 

.1 

.2 

.3 

4.3 
.6 

1.1 
.1 
.3 
.9 

4.1 

2.2 

.2 

100.0 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

1.0 

1.0 

.9 

.7 
.9 
.8 

Calories. 
790 
695 
765 

2,040 
1,950 
1,435 
3,985 
2,845 
530 

Do 

Do 

Pork: 

Fresh  pork 

Do 

Pigs'  feet 

Lard 

Sausage  

4.2 

4.1 
1.1 

L4 

6.9 

14.1 

a  4.0 

10.1 

6.1 

.7 

.  7 
.8 

10.5 

•2.7 
1.0 

.5 

.4 
4.4 

.5 
2.0 
5.5 
1.3 
1.5 
9.3 
6.4 

.4 

Poultry:  Chicken 

Fish: 

Smelt 

480 

Squid,  dried 

1,405 
750 

Salt  fish 

Shrimp,  cooked 

.3 

.8 

40.1 

5.0 

58.0 
58.0 

.4 

13.7 

17.9 
2.4 
6.1 

72.1 
4.1 
4.7 
7.8 

21.3 
4.9 

53.6 
8.1 
6.2 

540 

Shrimp,  dried 

1,370 

1,635 

300 

Abalone,  dried 

Dairy  products:  Milk , 

Cereals: 

Do 

Bean  cheese 

1,290 
1,270 

1,460 

2,445 

375 

Dried  bean  cheese 

Potatoes,  white 

Cabbage,  Chinese 

75 

White  radish 

150 

■\\  hite  radish,  dried 

1,785 

Bean  sprouts 

155 

Purslane  (tong  ho) 

165 

Arrowroot 

175 

450 

Green  mustard  plant 

180 

Dried  mustard  plant 

1,410 

Preserved  mustard  plant 

Bamboo  shoots 

305 
185 

Vegetable  oils:  Peanut  oil 

4,220 

•  a  Containing  2.5  per  cent  salt. 

A  number  of  the  foods  were  not  analyzed.  Their  composition  was 
calculated  from  analyses  previously  reported.  The  data  used  for  the 
computations  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Table  3. —  Composition  of  edible  'portion  of  food  materials — composition  assumed. 


Food  material;- 


Refer- 
ence    Refuse 
No. 


Water. 


Pro- 
tein. 


Fat. 


Carbo- 

hy- 

Ash. 

drates. 

Per  ct. 

Per  ct. 

1.5 

.9 

1.1 

.4 

1.4 

.8 

1.2 

3.1 

.6 

1.5 

.8 

.7 

3.2 

78.0 

.3 

76.4 

.5 

67.6 

1.6 

72.0 

4.1 

65.9 

1.8 

100.0 

Fuel 

value  per 

pound. 


ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Fifch: 

Carp 

Carp,  as  purchased. . . 

Perch  

Perch,  as  purchased  . 

Shad 

Shad,  as  purchased  . . 

Crabs  

Crabs,  as  purchased  . 

Eggs 

Eggs,  as  purchased 

Dairy  products:  Butter .. 

VEGETABLE   FOOD 

Cereals: 

Rice 

Flour 

Oatmeal 

Vermicelli 

Cake,  sponge 

Sugars,  etc.:  Sugar 


Per  ct. 
*  87.1 
'*62.*5 
"  "43."9 
* "52*6 

'"i6.*8 


Per  ct. 
76.9 
48.4 
75.7 
28.4 
70.6 
39.6 
77.1 
37.0 
73.5 
65.6 
11.0 


12.3 
13.8 
10.4 
11.0 
15.3 


Per  ct. 
20.5 
12.9 
19.2 

7.2 
18.4 
10.3 
16.6 

7.9 
13.4 
11.9 

1.2 


9.0 

7.9 

13.7 

10.9 

6.3 


Per  ct. 

1.1 

.  7 

4.0 

1.5 

9.6 

5.4 

2.0 

1.0 

12.3 

11.0 

84.6 


.4 

1.4 

6.7 

2.0 

10.7 


Calories. 
430 
270 
525 
195 
745 
420 
415 
200 
770 
685 
3,590 


1,035 
1,625 
1,270 
1,625 
1,795 
1,860 


29 


Table  3. — Composition  of  edible  portion  of  food  materials,  etc. — Continued. 


Food  materials. 

Refer- 
ence 
No. 

Refuse. 

Water. 

Pro- 
tein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hy- 
drates. 

Ash. 

Fuel 

value  per 

pound. 

vegetable  food— continued. 

Vegetables: 

59 

60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 

68 

69 

70 
71 
72 
73 

74 
75 

76 
77 

Per  ct. 
15.0 

"i5."6" 

""io.'o* 

51.0 
45.0 

""zi'.b' 

Per  ct. 
91.4 

77.7 
94.7 
80.5 
87.7 
78.9 
42.6 
40.8 
92.3 

66.9 

15.7 

10.4 
84.3 
82.3 
10.6 

93.6 
77.6 

81.6 
56.3 

Per  ct. 
1.7 

1.4 
1.2 
1.0 
1.6 
1.4 
.5 
3.6 
2.1 

4.4 

10.1 

4.2 

1.6 

1.1 

20.9 

1.2 
1.4 

1.5 
1.0 

Per  ct. 
0.3 

.2 
.3 
.2 
.3 
.3 
.      .1 
.2 
.3 

.8 

3.4 

1.4 
.2 
.3 

1.2 

.1 

.5 
.4 

Per  ct. 
5.6 

4.8 
2.9 
2.5 
9.9 
8.9 
5.5 
9.8 
3.2 

25.9 

67. 2 

81.9 
13.1 
14.5 
59.8 

4.7 
19.4 

15.8 
10.9 

Per  ct. 
1.0 

.9 
.9 
.8 
.5 
.5 
.3 
.6 
2.1 

2.0 

3.6 

2.1 

.8 
1.8 
7.5 

.3 
1.2 

.6 
.4 

Calories. 
150 

Cabbage,  American,  as   pur- 

125 

90 

Lettuce,  as  purchased 

75 
225 

205 

Do 

115 

Peas,  green,  as  purchased 

255 
110 

Arrowhead  tuber,  Sagittaria 

595 

Dried    lily   flowers,   Hemero- 

callis/ulva  (kam  cham  t'soi ) . 

Dried  fungus,  Peziza  auricula 

1,580 
1,660 

280 

Yam  bean  roc t  ( fan  ko) 

Algae 

305 
1,550 

Leprosy     gourd,     Memordica 

120 

405 

Fruits: 

Bananas  

Bananas,  as  purchased 

345 
240 

DIETARY  STUDY  OF  A  DENTIST'S  FAMILY  (No.  325). 

The  dentist's  family  lived  in  comfortable  circumstances  near  the 
business  center  of  Chinatown,  San  Francisco,  and  is  believed  to  be 
fairly  typical  of  the  families  of  Chinese  professional  men  of  the  region. 
Besides  the  dentist  and  his  wife  there  were  a  number  of  boarders, 
men  and  boys,  who  were  students.  None  of  these  persons  were 
engaged  in  active  muscular  work.  It  is  believed  that  the  family  may 
be  fairly  compared  with  that  of  the  average  American  professional 
man.  The  dietary  study  began  February  21,  1899,  and  continued  11 
days.  The  members  of  the  family  included  in  the  study  were  the 
husband,  39  years  of  age,  weighing  116  pounds;  the  wife,  33  years  of 
age,  weighing  105  pounds;  a  cook  (male),  28  years  old,  weighing  134 
pounds;  2  adult  boarders,  students,  30  and  20  years  old,  and  weighing 
140  and  110  pounds,  respectively;  4  boys,  boarders,  also  students,  3  of 
them  16  }Tears  old  and  one  15,  weighing,  respectively,  95,  96,  84,  and 
84  pounds.  All  these  persons  were  natives  of  China.  The  family  was 
in  good  health.  There  were  guests  (men)  for  5  meals.  The  nien  and 
boys  of  the  family  were  absent  from  a  number  of  meals. 

The  number  of  meals  taken  was  as  follows: 

Meals. 

Five  men 205 

One  woman  (42  meals  X  0.8  meal  of  man) 34 

Four  boys  (152  meals  X  0.8  meal  of  man) 122 

Five  visitors,  men 5 

Total  number  of  meals 366 

Equivalent  to  1  man  for  122  days. 


30 

In  the  following  tables  are  recorded  the  kinds  and  amounts  of  the 
different  foods  purchased,  wasted,  and  eaten,  together  with  their  com- 
position and  cost. 

Table  4. —  Weight*  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  Xo.  325. 


Cost  and  composition  of  food  per  man  per 
day. 


Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  oi  foods  consumed.1 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Fuel 
value. 

ANIMAL  FOOD. 

Beef:  Round,  4.045  grams,  89  cents  (9) 

Cen  s. 
0.7 

3.3 

1.7 

2.1 
.5 
.3 

1.6 

Grams. 
8 

21 
9 

L8 

2 

Grant*. 
3 

76 

1 

2 
2 

5 
5 

Grams. 

Calories. 

60 

Pork:  Fresh  pork,  14,264  grams,  $3.10   (12);  sausage. 
454  grams,  30  cents  (16);  pigs'  feet,  2,497  grams,  2^ 
cents  (2);  lard,  2.860  grams,  40  cents  (15) 

795 

Poultry:  Chicken,  6,681  grams  $2.10  (3j... 

45 

Fish:  Smelt.  6,363  grams,  $1  (4);  salt  fish.  1,589  grams. 
45  cents  (5);  dried  squid,  681  grams,  70  cents  (19); 
crabs,  2,043  grams,  15  cents  (49);  shrimp,  499  grams, 
10  cents  (6):  dried  shrimp,  499  grams,  20  cents  (22)  . . 

95 

25 

Butter,  681  grams,  35  cents  (52) 

46 

Milk,  17,706  grams,  81.80  (24) 

5 

7 

95 

10.2 

63 

94 

7 

1  160 

VEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Cereals:    Oatmeal.   2,724  grams,   20  cents   (55);    rice, 
29,510  grams,  $3.25  (53):  flour,  1.135  grams,  10  cents 
(54);  bread,  4,313  grams,  45  cents  (25);  sponge  cake, 
1,135  grams.  25  cents  (57);  vermicelli,  272  grams,  5 
cents  (56) 

3.5 

.4 

2.3 
.1 
.2 

29 

4 

239 
29 

24 

1,135 

Sugars,  etc. :  Sugar,  3,519  grams,  45  cents  (58) 

120 

Vegetables;  Bean  cheese,  5,676  grams.  30  cents  (27); 
dried  bean  cheese,  817  grams,  20  cents  (28);    bean 
sprouts,  1,634  grams,  15  cents  (33);  lettuce,  681  grams, 
5  cents  (62);  onions,  150  grams.  2  cents  (64);  potatoes, 
4,313  grams,  12  cents   (7);  spinach,  1.362  grams,  10 
cents  (67):  white  radishes,  4.540  grams,  25  cents  (8); 
dried  radish,  136  grams,  3  cents  (32);  green  mustard 
plant.  6,356  grams,  25  cents  (37);  preserved  mustard 
plant.  454  grams.  5  cents  (39);  taro  root.  908  grams, 
5  cents   (36);   purslane,  2,406  grams,  15  cents  (34); 
dried  fungus.  408  grams,  15  cents  (70);   dried  lily 
flowers.  499  grams,  20  cents  (69);    algse,  136  grams, 
5  cents  (73);  leprosy  gourd,  1.135  grams,  20 cents  (74); 
bamboo  shoots,  1.407  grams,  25  cents  (40) :  arrowroot, 
1.679  grams,  20  cents  (35) 

25 

12 
3 

310 

Vegetable  oils:  Peanut  oil,  408  grams,  10  cents  (41) 

Fruits:  Bananas,  1,362  grams,  25  cents  (77) 

30 

1 

5 

Total  vegetable  food 

6.5 

54 

19 

293 

1,600 

Total  food  purchased 

16.7 

117 

113 

300 

2,  760 

WASTE. 

.1 
.2 

1 

1 

5 

11 

50 

Total  food  wasted 

.3 

2 

11 

55 

Total  food  eaten 

16.4 

115 

113 

289 

2, 705 

1  The  numbers  in  parentheses  after  each  food  material  in  this  and  Tables  5  and  6  refer  to  correspond- 
ing numbers  in  the  second  column  of  Tables  1-3,  pp.  27-29. 

It  will  be  seen  that  while  this  family  consumed  a  large  number  of 
foods  which  are  familiar  and  found  on  the  tables  of  most  American 
families,  there  were  many  which  are  practically  unknown  to  the 
average  housekeeper.  The  familiar  foods  include,  among  other  things, 
meat,  poultry,  fish,  dairy  products,  eggs,  rice,  Hour,  bread,  cake, 
potatoes,  lettuce,  spinach,  radishes,  and  bananas.  Of  the  unfamiliar 
articles,  dried  crabs  and  dried  shrimp  are  noticeable  among  animal 


31 

foods,  and  arrowroot,  taro  root,  dried  radishes,  bean  sprouts,  bean 
cheese,  dried  fungus,  lily  petals,  alga?,  and  bamboo  shoots  among 
vegetable  foods.  Purslane  has  been  long  used  as  a  pot  herb  in  this 
country,  though  its  use  is  by  no  means  common.  It  is  much  used  b}T 
the  Chinese.  Another  vegetable  used  in  this  dietary,  which,  though 
eaten  by  others  than  the  Chinese,  is  not  generally  known  in  the  United 
States,  is  the  leprosy  gourd  (Morrwrdica  charantia).  This  is  largely 
used  throughout  the  Tropics  as  a  condiment  in  the  preparation  of  cur- 
ries, etc.     The  Chinese  use  it  as  a  salad  and  in  other  ways. 

Both  tea  and  coffee  were  used  as  beverages.  During  the  study  some 
condiments  (salt,  etc.)  were  used,  but  the  total  expenditure  for  such 
things  was  small.  The  foods  were  cooked  and  served  in  ways  dif- 
ferent from  those  familiar  to  American  families.  The  diet  as  a  whole 
was  reasonably  varied,  and  was  relished  by  the  family. 

DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 

When  the  amounts  of  different  foods  are  considered  it  appears  that 
the  main  meat  supply  was  pork,  which  yielded  about  one-third  of  the 
animal  protein.  Fish  ranks  second,  furnishing  between  one-third  and 
one-fourth  of  this  nutrient,  or  15  per  cent  of  the  total.  Chicken 
and  beef  rate,  respectively,  third  and  fourth  as  regards  the  animal 
protein  content  of  the  dietary. 

The  main  vegetable  food  was  rice,  although  less  was  consumed  per 
man  in  this  dietary  than  in  either  of  the  other  two  studied.  Consider- 
able bread  and  other  cereal  food  products  besides  rice  were  used,  as 
well  as  large  quantities  of  cheap  green  vegetables.  In  fact,  the  latter 
amounted  to  nearly  one-half  the  total  vegetable  food  materials.  The 
greater  part  of  the  vegetables  wrere  Chinese  varieties. 

A  total  of  ST.  87  represents  the  amount  spent  for  vegetable  food 
materials.  With  the  exception  of  rice  there  was  no  one  article  of 
vegetable  food  whose  cost  exceeded  -15  cents,  the  majority  ranging 
below  25  cents. 

The  two  large  items  of  expense  were  $3.10  for  pork  and  £3.21  for 
rice,  the  outlay  for  each  being  almost  identical.  More  was  paid  for 
poultry  (62.10)  than  for  beef,  for  which  but  89  cents  was  speiu  during 
the  two  Aveeks.  The  amount  expended  for  fish  was  $2.60.  The  a\  er- 
age  price  per  pound  paid  for  meat  was  10  cents.  The  cost  of  the  animal 
food  was  £12.41.  or  over  60  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditure. 

The  amounts  of  nutrients  actually  consumed  per  man  per  day  by 
this  Chinese  family  agree  very  closely  with  the  tentative  standard  for 
a  man  with  light  muscular  work,  viz,  112  grams  protein  and  3,150 
calories  of  energy,  while  the  average  of  fourteen  dietary  studies  of 
families  of  professional  men  in  the  United  States  shows  less  protein 
(103  grams),  but  a  higher  fuel  value  (3,465  calories).  This  fact  is  of 
more  than  passing  interest,  and  would  seem  to  warrant  further  investi- 
gation along  this  line  in  order  to  see  whether  the  Chinese  in  comfortable 


32 

circumstances  (professional  men  and  the  like)  generally  select  a  diet 
which  conforms  to  the  commonly  accepted  standards  or  whether  this 
is  merely  an  exceptional  case. 

The  waste  in  this  dietary  was  very  small,  and  compares  favorably 
with  that  found  in  the  average  American  family  studied. 

It  is  interesting-  to  note  that  while  the  dietary  is  well  balanced  and 
up  to  the  standard,  the  cost  per  man  per  day,  including  beverages  and 
condiments,  was  17.3  cents,  which  is  about  50  per  cent  of  the  sum 
which  has  been  found  in  the  average  of  the  dietary  studies  of  profes- 
sional men  in  the  United  States.  There  was  a  daily  expenditure  of  0.5 
cent  per  man  for  beverages.  The  value  of  the  food  wasted  was  about 
0.3  cent.     The  cost  of  the  food  actually  eaten  was  16.4  cents. 

While  the  expenditure  per  man  per  day  was  small  in  this  Chinese 
family,  it  is  possible  for  an  American  famil}r  in  similar  circumstances 
to  live  comfortably  on  about  the  same  sum,  as  is  shown  by  the  results 
obtained  in  a  dietaiy  study  made  with  a  teacher's  family  in  Indiana.1 
This  family  had  a  reasonably  varied  and  attractive  diet  at  a  cost  of  18 
cents  per  man  per  day. 

DIETARY  STUDY  OF  A  CHINESE  LAUNDRY  ASSOCIATION  (No.  326)' 

The  laundry  employees  whose  dietary  was  studied  are  believed  to 
represent,  as  regards  food  habits,  a  large  class  of  Chinese  laborers. 
The  laundry  selected  is  tyTpical  of  its  kind  in  California.  The  business 
is  generally  conducted  in  wooden  buildings  of  one  story,  containing 
only  a  small  number  of  rooms.  The  main  room  serves  as  ironing 
room,  dining  room,  and,  in  many  cases,  more  particularly  in  San 
Francisco,  also  as  sleeping  apartment  for  the  employees,  bunks  being 
constructed  immediately  below  each  ironing  table.  In  inclement 
weather  the  clothes  are  also  dried  in  the  room  on  wires  suspended  near 
the  ceiling.  The  men  employed  at  these  laundries  begin  work  early 
in  the  morning,  and,  when  necessaiy,  continue  until  late  at  night. 
Previous  to  the  passage  of  the  State  law  regulating  the  hours  of 
labor,  etc. ,  it  was  not  at  all  uncommon  for  the  Chinamen  to  keep  at 
their  ironing  tables  until  1  and  2  a.  m.,  and  on  Saturday  nights,  if 
many  clothes  remained  unironed,  work  was  continued  until  daylight 
on  Sunday.  The  work  performed  by  the  men  studied  was  regarded 
as  moderately  severe. 

The  pay  varies  according  to  ability  and  experience.  The  highest 
wages,  $7  to  $8  per  week,  are  paid  to  those  who  are  expert  at  ironing 
shirts;  also  to  the  chief  washer.  Other  employees  receive  from  $1  to 
$6  per  week.  These  figures  include  board  and  lodging.  Before  a 
man  can  become  a  journeyman  he  must  have  served  an  apprenticeship 
of  at  least  three  months,  during  which  time  he  must  perform  any  sort 
of  labor  requested  of  him  connected  with  the  business.     Usually  the 

lV.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  32. 


33 

cook  of  the  establishment  belongs  to  this  class,  although  quite  often 
the  principal  cook  is  a  man  who  is  out  cf  work  and  cooks  and  does  odd 
jobs  for  his  board  and  lodging  until  such  time  as  he  secures  a  perma- 
nent position,  when  his  place  is  taken  by  an  apprentice  or  some 
unfortunate  looking  for  a  temporary  home. 

The  dietary  study  made  with  the  laundry  employees  commenced 
April  3,  1899,  and  continued  14:  days. 

The  group  consisted  of  10  men  (Chinese),  from  25  to  42  years  of 
age,  weighing  from  125  to  148  pounds.  During  the  study  the  men 
missed  a  total  of  10  meals. 

The  number  of  meals  taken  was  418,  equivalent  to  1  man  for  139 
days. 

In  the  following  tables  are  shown  the  amount  and  composition  of 
the  food  purchased,  wasted,  and  eaten,  together  with  its  cost. 

Table  5. —  Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  stud'/  No.  326. 


Cosi  and  composition  of  fooa  per  man  per 
day. 


Kinds,  amounts,  and  cost  of  foods  consumed. 

Cost. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Fuel 
value. 

ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Beef:  Round,  21,338  grams,  84.70  (11) 

Cents. 

3.4 

3.1 

.9 

2.0 
.1 
.2 
.4 

Grams. 
31 
17 
5 

14 
1 

Grams. 
14 
50 

Grams. 

Calories. 
255 

Pork:  Fresh,  19.749  grains,  S4.35  (1)  

535 

Poultry:  Chickens,  3.632  grams,  §1.20  (3) 

20 

Fish:    Perch,  6,810  grams,  SI. 50  (45):   salt  fish,   1,135 
grams,  25  cents  (5);  fresh  shrimp,  114  grams,  3  cents 
(6);  dried  shrimp,  681  grams,  25  cents  (22);  dried 
squid,  908  grams,  40  cents  (19);  abalone,  454  grams, 
40  cents  (23) 

2 

1 

80 

Eggs,  454  grams,  15  cents  (51) 

5 

Butter,  454  grams,  25  cents  (52) 

3 
1 

30 

Milk,  4,994  grams,  50  cents  (24) 

1 

2 

20 

Total  animal  food 

10.1 

69 

70 

3 

945 

yEGETABLE   FOOD. 

Cereals:   Rice,  73,982  grams,  88.15  (53);  bread,  16,344 

grams,  §1.80  (26);  vermicelli,  908  grams,  10  cents  (56). 

Sugar,  etc.:  Sugar,  5.448  grams,  60  cents  (58) 

7.1 
.5 

4.2 

57 

4 

488 
39 

2,270 
160 

Vegetables:  Bean  cheese.  1,135  grams,  10  cents  (27); 
dried  bean  cheese,  227  grams,  5  cents  (28);   bean 
sprouts,  4.086  grams,  25  cents  (33);  onions,  681  grains. 
7  cents  (65);  green  peas,  1,362  grams,  6  cents  (66); 
white  radish,  1,362  grams,  6  cents  (8):  dried  radish, 
908  grams,  10  cents  (32);  green  mustard  plant,  7,037 
grams,  40  cents  (37);  dried  mustard  plant.  908  grams. 
20  cents  (38);  preserved  mustard  plant.  4.540  grams. 
25  cents  (39);  taro  root,  10.669  grams,  SI. 17  (36) ;  dried 
fungus  681  grams,  35  cents  (70);  dried  lily  flowery 
908  grams,  20  cents  (69) ;  algae,  227  grams,  5  cents 
(73);  arrowhead  tuber,  5.675  grams,  SI. 05  (68);  water- 
lily  root,  908  grams,  20  cents  (71);  Chinese  cabbage, 
13,847  grams,  78  cents   (30);    yam-bean   root.   3,178 
grams,  40  cents   (72);  water  chestnut,  681  grams,  6 
cents  (75) 

15 

5 

360 

Total  vegetable  food 

11.8 

72 

9 

5-88 

2  790 

Total  food  purchased 

21.9 

141 

79 

591 

3,  735 

WASTE. 

Animal 

.2 

.  / 

4 

2 
1 

25 

Vegetable 

25 

130 

Total  food  wasted 

.9 

6 

3 

-'5 

155 

Total  food  eaten 

21.0 

135 

76 

566 

3,580 

1005H— No.  107— 02- 


34 


DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 


This  dietary  is  not  so  varied  as  that  of  the  dentist's  family.  Thirty- 
five  food  materials  were  used,  one-third  being  animal  foods  and  two- 
thirds  vegetable  foods.  As  before,  a  number  of  common  foods — beef, 
pork,  dairy  products,  rice,  bread,  sugar,  vegetables,  etc. — were  eaten, 
and  many  foods  which  were  typically  Chinese.  These  included  among 
others  dried  shrimp,  dried  squid,  water-lily  root,  bean  cheese,  algae, 
preserved  green  mustard  tops,  etc.  As  regards  amounts,  fully  25  per 
cent  of  the  total  food  consisted  of  meat  and  fish,  of  which  about  10 
per  cent  was  round  of  beef,  supplying  over  22  per  cent  of  the  total 
protein  and  not  far  from  50  per  cent  of  the  total  animal  protein. 
Pork,  in  this  instance,  though  approaching  quite  close  to  beef  in  total 
amount,  furnishes  only  about  one-half  as  much  protein.  Owing  to 
the  large  amount  of  pork  eaten,  88  per  cent  of  the  total  food  fat  was 
animal  fat.  Some  20  per  cent  of  the  animal  protein  was  obtained 
from  fish.  The  total  protein  in  the  dietary  is  almost  evenly  divided 
between  animal  and  vegetable  foods,  there  being  49.1  per  cent  of  the 
former  and  50.9  per  cent  of  the  latter.  Of  the  vegetable  protein  about 
two-thirds  was  supplied  b}T  rice.  In  other  wTords,  one-third  of  the 
entire  protein  of  the  dietary  was  derived  from  this  important  food 
material,  which  also  forms  about  the  same  proportion  of  the  total 
food.  In  this  dietary  bread  was  served  each  day  at  the  noon  meal, 
thus  decreasing  the  amount  of  rice  consumed.  Between  5  and  6  per 
cent  of  the  vegetable  protein  was  supplied  by  soy-bean  cheese,  an 
article  of  food  quite  common  among  the  Chinese. 

Green  vegetables  were  largely  used,  and  with  tw7o  or  three  excep- 
tions they  were  Chinese  varieties. 

The  standard  to  which  Ave  would  naturally  refer  this  study  is  that  of 
a  man  at  moderate  work,  namely,  125  grams  protein  and  3,500  calories. 
The  food  actually  eaten  per  man  per  day  in  the  study  furnished  134 
grams  protein  and  3,585  calories,  amounts  which  agree  quite  closely 
with  the  commonl}'  accepted  American  standard  for  a  man  at  mod- 
erately severe  work. 

Cost.—  The  outlay  for  rice,  $8.15,  in  this  dietary  was  not  far  from 
twice  that  for  an}'  other  single  item.  The  cost  of  beef  and  pork 
together,  89.05,  exceeds  that  of  rice  by  about  11  per  cent. 

That  the  Chinese  in  this  instance  appreciated  the  importance  of 
animal  foods  is  evinced  by  the  fact  that  46  per  cent,  or  nearly  one- 
half,  of  the  total  sum  expended  (830.43)  was  paid  for  this  kind  of 
nourishment.  The  average  cost  of  a  pound  of  meat  in  this  and  the 
other  dietaries  reported  was  10  cents. 

Referring  to  the  expenditure  for  food  per  man  per  day  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  total  cost  was.  including -beverages,  23.2  cents,  and  the 
cost  of  food  actually  eaten  21  cents,  wdiich  is  1.3  cents  more  than  noted 


U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.,  Bui.   107.  Office  of  Expt.  Stations. 


Plate  I. 


35 

for  dietary  No.  327  and  4.6  cents  in  excess  of  the  corresponding  cost 

in  dietary  Xo.  325.     The  cost  of  wastes  is  slightly  less  in  this  case 
than  in  dietary  Xo.  327.     (See  p.  37.) 

DIETARY   STUDY   OF   EMPLOYEES  ON  A  CHINESE    TRUCK  FARM 

(No.  327). 

The  truck  farm,  called  locally  a  "vegetable  garden."  where  the 
dietary  study  was  made,  is  situated  in  Berkeley.  Cal..  and  is  similar  to 
hundreds  of  others  in  the  State  conducted  entirely  by  Chinese.  In 
some  cases  only  one  crop  is  grown,  but  generally  all  kinds  of  vege- 
tables are  raised,  and  sometimes  small  fruits  in  addition.  The  size  of 
these  farms,  which  are  usually  leased,  varies  from  a  small  patch  to 
hundreds  of  acres,  and  the  fields,  almost  without  exception,  are  main- 
tained in  a  very  high  state  of  cultivation. 

The  farm  in  question  contains  45  acres,  for  which  a  yearly  rental  of 
$685  was  paid.  It  was  very  intelligently  managed.  The  number  of 
employees  depends  upon  the  season,  varying  from  12  to  IS.  Thejrien 
commenced  work  about  *3  a.  m.  and  continued,  with  an  interval  of  one 
hour  for  dinner,  until  7  p.  m.  The  men  studied  performed  severe 
outdoor  work.  No  distinction  was  made  in  wages,  each  man  receiving 
11.10  per  day.  The  proprietor  of  the  truck  farm  boarded  the  laborers 
at  the  rate  of  $1.10  per  week,  which  was  less  than  the  actual  cost  of 
the  food  eaten.  When  asked  the  reason,  he  stated  that  if  he  charged 
more  for  food  the  men  would  demand  higher  wages.  The  house,  or 
more  properly  shanty,  where  the  men  live  is  typical  of  those  found  on 
similar  farms  throughout  the  State.  The  barn  and  dwelling  house  are 
under  the  same  roof,  being  separated  only  by  a  board  partition. 
Some  of  the  products  of  the  garden  were  sold  to  the  residents  of 
Berkeley  and  the  remainder  shipped  to  the  San  Francisco  market. 

This  dietary  study  commenced  February  '2±.  1899,  and  continued 
is  days. 

The  group  consisted  of  12  men.  varying  in  ages  from  25  to  50  years 
and  in  weight  from  120  to  150  pounds.  Some  of  the  men  were  absent 
from  a  number  of  meals.  The  number  of  meals  taken  wa<  568, 
equivalent  to  1  man  for  189  day-. 


36 


The  results  of  the  study  are  recorded  in  the  following  tables: 
Table  6. —  Weights  and  cost  of  food  and  nutrients  consumed  in  dietary  study  No.  327. 


Kinds  amounts,  and  cost  of  foods  consumed. 

Cost  and  composi 
Cost.      Protein. 

ion  of  fc 

Fat. 

>od  per  man  per  day. 

Carbohy-      Fuel 
drates.        value. 

ANIMAL   FOOD. 

Beef:  Fresh,  6,583  grams,  $1.45  (10) 

Cents. 

0.8 

4.4 

.6 

2.9 

Grams. 
9 

31 
3 

22 

Grams. 
2 
84 

Grams. 

Calories. 
55 

Pork :  Fresh  pork,  38,045  grams,  $8.38  (12) 

910 

Poultry:  Chicken,  3,032  grams,  $1.20  (3) 

10 

Fish:  Carp,  2,724  grams,   60  cents   (43);    shad,    8,172 
grams,  $1.80  (47);  salt  fish,  4,086  grams,  90  cents  (5); 
dried  shrimp,  772  grams,  22  cents  (22);  dried  squid, 
1,362  grams,  $1.40  (19);  abalone,  1,362  grams,  50  cents 
(23) 

4 

3 

140 

Total  animal  food 

8.7 

65 

90 

3 

1,115 

VEGETABLE  FOOD. 

Cereals:  Rice,  154,496  grams,  $17  (53);  vermicelli,  590 
grams,  10  cents  (56) 

9.0 
3.1 

74 
12 

3 

4 

640 
36 

2,955 
235 

Vegetables:  American  cabbage,  2,724  grams,  15  cents 
(60);  Chinese  cabbage,  41,314  grams,  $2.28(30);  bean 
sprouts,   1,816   grams,  10  cents  (33);   bean  cheese, 
2,724  grams,  60  cents  (27);  potatoes,  17,025  grams,  60 
cents  (7);  taro  root, 454 grams,  Scents  (36);  radishes, 
21,792  grams,  96  cents  (8);  dried  fungus,  908  grams, 
40  cents  (70);  dried  lily  flowers,  1,317  grams,  50  cents 
(69);  water-lily  root,  545  grams,  10  cents  (71);  water 
chestnut,  227  grams,  2  cents  (75) 

Total  vegetable  food 

12.1 

86 

7 

676 

3,190 

Total  food  purchased 

20.8 

.3 

.8 

151 

2 
5 

97 
2 

679 

4,305 

WASTE. 

25 

Vegetable 

39 

180 

Total  food  wasted 

1.1 

v 

2 

39 

205 

Total  food  eaten 

19.7 

144 

95 

640 

4,100 

DISCUSSION  OF  RESULTS. 

This  is  perhaps  the  most  interesting  study  of  the  three.  Here  we 
have  conditions  obtaining  which  we  do  not  find  in  either  dietary  studies 
Nos.  325  or  326.  In  the  first  place,  excepting  a  little  vermicelli,  rice 
is  the  only  cereal  consumed  and  is  also  the  only  concentrated  carboh}T- 
drate  food  appearing  in  the  list  of  the  22  foods  used.  As  in  the  other 
dietaries  studied,  some  foods  familiar  in  American  households  were 
found,  including  beef,  pork,  chicken,  fish,  rice,  cabbage,  radish,  ver- 
micelli, and  potatoes.  However,  these  articles  can  not  be  called  pecu- 
liarly American,  but  are  the  same  as  foods  which  are  used  in  China  or 
resemble  them  closely.  The  proportion  of  peculiarly  Chinese  foods  is 
larger  than  in  the  other  dietaries,  and,  as  before,  the  list  includes  dried 
squid,  dried  shrimp,  bean  cheese,  taro  root,  dried  day-lily  petals,  etc. 

The  results  given  above  show  that  in  this  study  the  diet  furnished 
144  grams  protein  and  4,100  calories  per  man  per  day,  values  which 


37 

quite  closely  accord  with  the  commonly  accepted  standard  for  a  man  at 
active  work,  namely,  150  grams  protein  and  4,500  calories.  In  this  and 
the  other  dietaries  reported  herewith,  the  Chinamen  seem  to  have 
selected  a  well-balanced  one,  suited  to  their  wants.  One-half  the 
total  food  consumed  in  this  dietary  was  rice,  which  is  a  far  larger 
proportion  than  was  shown  for  either  of  the  other  two  studied. 
Chinese  cabbage,  radishes,  and  potatoes  were  the  principal  vegetable 
foods  besides  rice. 

Less  animal  food  was  consumed  in  this  dietary  than  in  either  of  the 
others,  as  evidenced  by  the  following  statement: 

Table  7. — Percentage  of  animal  and  vegetable  food  in   Cliinexe  dietaries. 


Animal     Vegetable 
food.  food. 


Dietary  No.  325. 
Dietary  No.  326. 
Dietary  No.  327. 


Percent. 
44.4 
28.1 
21.3 


Per  cent. 
55.6 
71.9 
78.7 


Milk,  butter,  eggs,  and  sugar  were  not  used  during  the  study,  and 
according  to  the  information  furnished  were  very  rarely  eaten  by  the 
men.  Pork  formed  about  60  per  cent  and  fish  not  quite  25  per  cent 
of  the  animal  food  eaten.  Both  fresh  and  salt  fish  were  used,  the 
former  predominating.  Shrimp,  fresh  and  cured,  and  dried  oysters 
(abalone).  were  also  used  to  some  extent. 

The  Chinese  are  great  lovers  of  fish  of  all  descriptions,  and  large 
quantities  of  dried  fish  and  dried  shrimp  are  annually  exported  from 
the  Pacific  coast  to  China,  where,  it  is  said,  they  furnish  no  inconsid- 
erable part  of  the  nitrogenous  foods  consumed  by  the  residents  of  the 
cities.  When  the  proprietor  of  the  truck  farm  was  asked  how  the  food 
in  California  compared  with  that  in  China,  he  stated  that  the  same  kinds 
of  food  were  eaten  except  that  more  chicken  was  used  in  China,  as  it  is 
cheaper  there.  In  the  opinion  of  trustworthy  Chinese  familiar  with 
the  subject  the  average  workingman  in  the  cities  in  China  lives  just 
about  as  the  men  on  this  truck  farm,  while  men  in  the  same  circum- 
stances in  the  villages  eat  more  taro  roots  and  Chinese  sweet  potatoes, 
yams,  etc.,  and  have  less  meat  and  less  rice,  the  latter  being  considered 
a  luxury. 

Cost. — The  amount  spent  for  animal  foods.  &16.I5,  very  nearly  equals 
the  amount  expended  for  rice.  The  cost  per  man  per  day  for  food 
actually  eaten  was  19.  7  cents,  as  against  21  cents  in  dietary  No.  326.  Not 
only  in  this  dietary  is  the  cost  less,  but  more  nutrients  were  obtained 
per  man  per  day.  Here  we  have  4,100  calories  for  19.7  cents  as  com- 
pared with  3,580  calories  for  21  cents  in  dietary  No.  326. 

The  cost  of  the  food  wasted,  1.1  cents  per  man  per  da}%  in  this  study 
exceeds  that  in  Nos.  325  and  326. 


38 

Beverages. — Tea  is  the  universal  beverage  of  the  Chinaman  and  the 
men  on  this  truck  farm  drank  practically  no  water,  flasks  of  tea  being 
carried  to  the  fields  and  there  partaken  of  as  desired. 

SUMMARY. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  results  of  the  dietary  studies  of  the 
Chinese  professional  man's  family  and  laborers  with  the  results  of 
similar  studies  made  elsewhere.  Of  the  Chinese  dietaries  as  a  whole 
it  may  be  said  that  while  many  of  the  foods  eaten  were  unknown  to 
American  households,  they  were  wholesome  and  nutritious  and  were 
combined  to  form  a  reasonably  varied  diet.  Kellner  and  Mori,  Eijk- 
mann.  and  others1  who  have  studied  the  diet  of  Oriental  races,  also 
report  the  use  of  many  different  foods,  resulting  in  a  varied  diet.  In 
addition  to  the  peculiar  Chinese  foods  a  considerable  number  of  articles 
which  were  common  American  foods — such  as  bread,  cake,  cabbage, 
etc. — were  used.  In  other  words,  the  Chinese  diet  had  apparently 
been  influenced  by  environment. 

A  similar  change  has  been  observed  in  other  dietary  studies  made 
under  the  auspices  of  this  Department,  and  is  to  be  expected.  Thus 
the  Italians.  Bohemians,  and  Jews  studied  in  Chicago2  were  found  to 
conform  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  to  ordinary  American  food  habits, 
and  in  general  the  influence  of  former  dietary  habits  was  less  marked 
the  longer  the  residence  in  this  country. 

The  diet  of  the  Chinese  truck-farm  laborers  contained  practically  no 
foods  which  were  not  such  as  are  generally  used  by  the  Chinese  in 
their  own  country.  In  other  words,  these  men  living  in  the  country 
were  less  affected  by  American  food  habits  than  those  living  in  the  city. 

Cost. — As  regards  cost,  the  sum  expended  (19  cents  on  an  average) 
per  man  per  day  in  the  Chinese  dietaries  was  doubtless  below  the 
average  in  American  families,  but  not  below  that  recorded  in  some 
instances  where  the  diet  was  regarded  as  satisfactory.  For  instance,  a 
teacher's  family  in  Indiana3  had  a  reasonably  varied  and  attractive 
diet  at  a  cost  of  18  cents  per  man  per  day. 

Waste. — The  figures  given  in  the  tables  reporting  the  details  of 
the  studies  show  that  the  total  waste  averaged  about  -I  per  cent  of  the 
total  food  supplied.  About  75  per  cent  of  the  total  waste  and  two- 
thirds  of  the  protein  waste  occurs  in  the  vegetable  foods.  However, 
the  total  amount  purchased  and  not  eaten  was  very  small  and  bears 
testimony  to  excellent  management. 

Table  S  summarizes  the  results  of  the  three  studies  made  with  the 
Chinese  and  also,  for  purposes  of  comparison,  quotes  the  results  of  a 

1U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Buls.  21  and  45. 
2U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  55. 
3U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  32. 


39 

number  of  foreign  dietary  studies,  and  the  average  results  obtained  in 
studies  carried  on  with  American  professional  men.  mechanics,  and 
farmers.     The  commonly  accepted  dietary  standards  are  also  given. 

Table  S. — Comparison  of  Chinese  and  other  dietaries. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Fuel 
ralue. 


Cost 


Chinese  dentist's  family 

Chinese  laundry  association 

Chinese  truck-farm  laborers 

Japanese  (vegetable  diet  Xa    

Japanese  (medium  mixed  diet)  (a) 

Japanese  (abundant  mixed  diet)  (a) 

Employee's  in  retail  store.  Tokyo  (a) 

Europeans  in  Java  |  professional  men)  (6). 

Malays,  professional  men  (b) 

Java  village.  World's  Fair.  Chicago  (c)  ... 
Japanese  professional  man  (4  studies)  (d). 


SUMMARIZED   RESULTS   OF   AMERICAN"   DIETARIES. 


Professional  men  |  average  of  14  studies  i  — 
Mechanics' families  average  of  14  studies  i. 
Farmers'  families  I  average  of  10  studies 


Grams.       Grams. 


Grams.      Calories.       Cent* 


DIETARY   STANDARDS. 


Man  with  light  work  At  water  i . . . 
Man  at  moderate  work  (Atwater). 
Man  at  severe  work  (Atwater  I 


115 

135 

144 

71 

109 

123 

55 

100 

73 

66 

63 


104 
103 


112 
125 
1-50 


113 
76 
95 
12 
20 
21 

6 
84 
30 
19 

3 


125 

1.50 
130 


566 
640 
396 
461 
410 
394 
264 
472 
2-54 
4S1 


423 
402 


2.  705 

3,580 
4,100 

2. 026 
2.  423 
2.  405 

1.  895 

2.  470 
2.  512 
1,490 


3. 325 
3.465 
3.  515 


3.1-50 
3,500 
4.500 


16.4 
21.0 
19.7 


a  Ztschr.  Biol..  25  (1889),  p.  102:  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr..  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  21. 
ftVirchow's  Arch.,  131  1 1893),  p.  170:  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  45,  p.  66. 
cY.  S.  Dept.  Agr..  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  21.  p.  ISO. 
dVirchow's  Arch..  116  (1889),  p.  381;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  45,  p.  59. 

The  dietaries  of  the  Chinese  family  and  groups  studied  in  California 
compare  very  favorably  with  those  quoted  of  Japanese.  Javanese. 
Malays,  and  European  residents  of  Java.  In  general  they  contain 
somewhat  more  protein  and  energy.  Whether  the  Chinese  in  Cali- 
fornia consumed  habitually  more  food  than  persons  of  similar  employ- 
ment in  China  it  is  impossible  to  say.  When  compared  with  the 
average  results  of  similar  studies  in  American  families  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  Chinese  dietaries  agree  quite  closely  with  the  corresponding- 
averages  as  regards  both  protein  aud  energy. 

As  regards  total  nutrients  and  energy,  the  Chinese  dietaries  also 
compare  favorably  with  the  tentative  American  standards.  The  diet 
of  the  professional  man's  family  corresponded  to  the  standard  for  a 
man  at  light  muscular  work  as  regards  protein,  but  the  energy  was  a 
little  below  this  standard.  The  laundrymen  received  on  an  average  a 
little  less  protein  and  energy  than  the  standard  for  a  man  at  moder- 
ately active  muscular  work,  while  the  farm  laborers  obtained  rather 
less  protein  and  energy  than  the  tentative  standard  for  a  man  at  hard 
work  prescribes.  In  all  cases  it  may  be  said  that  the  variations  are 
not  great  enough  to  be  of  much  significance,  and  it  is  more  than  likely 
that  the  diet  would  vary  more  from  week  to  week  than  the  recorded 
figures  varv  from  the  standards.     It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it 


40 

is  not  considered  necessary  for  a  diet  to  conform  exactly  to  the  stand- 
ard, but  rather  to  approximate  it  through  long  periods,  as  a  small 
deficiency  on  one  day  may  be  made  good  by  an  abundance  the  next. 
Moreover,  the  standards  themselves  are  more  or  less  arbitrary  and 
do  not  necessarily  represent  exact  physiological  demands,  though  they 
are,  it  is  believed,  the  best  which  can  at  present  be  proposed. 

Rice. — As  rice  is  frequently  said  to  be  almost  the  sole  food  of  the 
Chinese,  it  seems  entitled  to  special  discussion.  As  shown  b}T  the 
tables  recording  the  details  of  the  individual  dietaries,  rice  was  used 
in  large  amounts,  but  was  far  from  being  the  only  food  eaten.  On 
the  contrary,  the  diet  was  about  as  varied  as  that  in  the  ordinary 
American  households,  although  many  of  the  foods  eaten  were  differ- 
ent. Table  9  shows  the  proportion  of  nutrients  supplied  by  rice  as 
compared  with  those  supplied  by  the  total  vegetable  food  and  the 
total  food  in  the  three  dietaries  studied. 

Table  9. — Relation  of  nutrients  supplied  by  rice  to  total  nutrients  in  Chinese  dietaries. 


Total 
food. 

Total 
protein. 

Total 
fat. 

Total 
carbo- 
hydrates. 

Nutrients  in  rice  compared  with  those  in  total  food: 

Per  cent. 
20.7 
49.4 
34.2 

Per  cent. 
is.  3 
48.8 
34.1 

Per  cent. 
0.8 

3.3 
2.7 

Per  cent. 
62.7 

Dietary  No.  326 

93.9 

Dietary  No.  327 

70.2 

34.8 

33.7 

2.3 

75.6 

Nutrients  in  rice  compared  with  those  in  yegetable  food: 

37.3 
62.8 
47.5 

39.9 
85.5 
66.9 

.5 
43.9 
23.1 

64.3 

Dietary  No.  326 

94.3 

Dietary  No.  327 

70.6 

49.2 

64.1 

22.5 

76.4 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  maximum  proportion  of  rice  was  used  in 
dietary  No.  326  and  the  minimum  in  No.  325.  On  an  average  about 
one-third  of  the  total  nutrients,  one-third  of  the  total  protein,  and 
three-fourths  of  the  total  carbohydrates  in  the  daily  diet  were  sup- 
plied by  rice.  Considering  only  vegetable  foods,  the  percentages  of 
nutrients  supplied  by  the  rice  are  somewhat  larger. 

In  the  account  of  Japanese  dietaries  referred  to  above,  Kellner  and 
Mori  quoted  figures  which  show  that  rice  constituted  about  50  per  cent 
of  the  total  vegetable  food  of  the  Japanese.1  Next  to  rice  stand  bar- 
ley and  wheat,  which  together  furnish  27  per  cent,  these  being  followed 
by  millet,  buckwheat,  etc..  furnishing  13.9  per  cent,  while  green  vege- 
tables, roots,  tubers,  etc..  make  up  the  remainder  of  the  vegetable  por- 
tion of  the  diet.  In  three  experiments  reported  b}T  these  authors  1,000 
to  1,200  grams  of  cooked  rice  (or  a  mixture  of  rice  and  barley)  was 
eaten  daily. 

iZtschr.  Biol.,  25  (1889),  p.  105. 


41 

In  the  dietary  study  made  at  the  Java  village  at  the  World's  Fair  in 
Chicago  in  1893,  the  food  consisted  mainly  of  rice  and  lean  beef.  The 
former  furnished  nearly  seven-tenths,  and  the  two  together  nearly 
live-sixths  of  the  total  nutrients.  In  addition  to  these  articles,  chicken, 
fish,  eggs,  bread,  green  vegetables,  and  fruit  were  eaten.  It  is  believed 
that  the  diet  did  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  the  same  persons  in 
Java.  In  the  dietaries  reported  by  Eijkmann  of  Malay  and  European 
residents  of  Java,  rice  was  a  staple  article,  being  eaten  with  eggs,  fruit, 
etc. 

Of  course  the  data  thus  available  are  wholly  inadequate  to  show 
what  is  the  actual  dietary  practice  of  people  of  different  classes  and 
regions  of  either  of  the  Oriental  countries  named.  They  may,  how- 
ever, be  taken  as  general  indications. 

It  seems  not  improbable,  therefore,  that  the  opinion  commonl}T  held 
regarding  the  extended  use  of  rice  by  Oriental  peoples  is  justified.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  in  all  the  dietaries  referred  to 
many  other  foods  were  eaten  and  that  foods  rich  in  protein  were 
always  found.  These  included  meat,  poultry,  fish,  and  eggs,  as  well  as 
bean  cheese  and  other  products  made  from  soy  beans. 

It  is  generally  believed,  and  ma}r  be  the  case,  that  the  diet  of  the 
Chinese  in  China  is  much  the  same  in  character  as  that  of  persons  of 
similar  employment  and  circumstances  in  Japan  or  Java.  This  is  cer- 
tainly true  of  the  Chinese  in  California  whose  food  habits  were  studied. 
While  rice  was  here  also  the  principal  cereal,  it  was  combined  with 
other  foods,  animal  and  vegetable,  rich  in  protein. 

A  question  well  worthy  of  consideration  is,  Did  rice  actually  bear  the 
same  relation  to  the  dietaries  of  the  Chinese  studied  as  bread  and  other 
cereal  products  do  to  the  food  of  the  average  American  family  ?  It  will 
be  seen  that  in  only  one  of  the  dietaiy  studies,  No.  326,  is  rice  practically 
the  only  cereal  or  cereal  product  eaten.  In  dietary  No.  327  bread  was 
served  once  each  day,  and  in  dietary  No.  325  bread,  flour,  and  oatmeal 
were  used.  Table  10,  which  follows,  shows  the  proportions  of  total 
nutrients  and  of  the  several  nutrients  furnished  by  rice  in  the  diet  of 
the  Chinese  farm  laborers,  and  in  the  average  of  the  three  Chinese 
dietaries  as  compared  with  the  amounts  furnished  b}T  bread  or  other 
similar  cereal  foods,  and  b}^  cereals  and  sugar  in  the  average  of  a 
number  of  American  dietaiy  studies  which  were  made  in  Connecticut 
and  Pennsylvania,  and  are  believed  to  be  fairly  representative. 
10056— No.  107—02—1 


42 

Table  10. — Proportion  of  total  food  and  total  nutrients  furnished  by  rice  and  by  other 
carbohydrate  foods  in  Chinesi  and  American  dietaries. 


Total 
food. 


Protein. 


Fat. 


Carbohy- 
drates. 


RICE. 

Average  of  Chinese  dietaries 

Chinese  truck-farm  laborers 

CEREALS. 

Average  of  6  Connecticut  families 

Average  of  5  Pennsylvania  families 

Average  of  185  families  in  the  United  States 

CEREALS   AND   SUGAR. 

Average  of  6  Connecticut  families 

Average  of  5  Pennsylvania  families    

Average  of  185  families  in  the  United  States 


i  Per  cent.    Per  cent. 
34. 8  33. 7 

49.  4  48. 8 


14.9 
27.0 
21.8 


22.2 
32.3 

27.4 


26.3 
37.8 
30.5 


26.6 
37.9 
30.5 


I'*  r  cent. 
2.3 
3.4 


4.  1 
5.0 
7.0 


4.4 
5.0 

7.0 


Per  cent. 
75.6 
93.9 


43.8 
59.1 

54.7 


71.3 
76.4 
75.9 


The  comparison  shows  that  in  the  American  dietaries  cereals  fur- 
nished two-thirds  as  much  of  the  total  food  and  total  carbohydrates  as 
did  rice  in  the  average  of  the  three  Chinese  dietaries.  The  figures  for 
protein  in  the  two  cases  show  only  a  slight  difference.  In  view  of  the 
fact  that  in  only  one  study.  No.  326,  was  rice  found  to  be  the  only 
cereal,  it  is  perhaps  fair  to  consider  the  results  there  found  rather  than 
the  average  results  of  the  three  studies.  Such  a  comparison  shows 
that  while  one-fifth  of  the  total  food  and  one-third  of  the  total  protein 
in  the  American  dietaries  studied  is  furnished  by  cereals,  one-half  is 
supplied  by  rice  in  the  Chinese  dietaries.  As  regards  carbohydrates, 
rice  furnished  Oi  per  cent  as  compared  with  50  per  cent  furnished  by 
cereals  in  the  American  dietaries. 

By  reference  to  the  preceding  pages  it  will  be  seen  that  aside  from 
rice  and  a  little  macaroni,  no  sugar  or  other  concentrated  carbohy- 
drate food  was  used  in  the  dietary  of  the  truck-farm  laborers.  It  is 
therefore  interesting  to  compare  the  proportion  of  total  food  and  total 
nutrients  furnished  in  these  dietaries  by  rice  with  similar  values  for 
cereal  foods  and  sugar  together  in  the  American  dietaries.  The 
figures  in  Table  10  show  that  even  the  cereals  and  sugar  together 
furnish  a  smaller  proportion  of  total  food  and  total  carbohydrates  in 
the  American  dietaries  than  did  rice  in  the  Chinese  dietaries. 

Nonalbuminoid  nitrogen. — In  the  study  of  dietaries  as  ordinarily 
conducted  no  distinction  is  made  between  albuminoids  and  amids,  the 
total  nitrogen  being  multiplied  by  the  factor  6.25,  and  called  protein. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  none  of  the  food  materials  commonly 
eaten,  except  green  vegetables  and  possibly  fruits,  contain  any  appre- 
ciable proportion  of  amid  nitrogen.  The  large  amount  of  green 
vegetables  consumed  by  the  Chinese  might,  therefore,  suggest  that 
considerable  of  the  total  protein  reported  in  the  dietaries  consists  of 
amids  rather  than  albuminoids,  and  that  the  diet  was  therefore  less 
valuable  than  the  results  quoted  above  would  indicate. 


43 

In  a  previous  publication  of  this  Office  heretofore  referred  to '  the 
proportion  of  amid  nitrogen  in  the  greater  number  of  the  vegetable 
foods  used  in  these  studies  was  recorded.  On  the  basis  of  these  and 
other  figures  the  amids  in  the  green  vegetables  was  calculated.  Con- 
sidering all  such  materials  used,  the  amids  amounted  to  0.8,  ^,  and 
2.3  grams,  respectively,  per  man  per  day  in  the  three  studies,  or  an 
average  of  1.7  grams.  This  amount  is  not  great  enough  to  materially 
lower  the  nutritive  value  of  the  diet,  which  on  an  average  contained 
131  grams  total  protein  per  day. 

Some  nonalbuminoid  nitrogen  is  also  furnished  by  the  extractives  of 
meat  and  fish.  This  was  not  taken  into  account  in  the  above  discus- 
sion, as  the  proportion  of  animal  food  in  the  Chinese  dietaries  did  not 
differ  much  from  that  observed  in  American  families  in  similar  cir- 
cumstances, while  the  proportion  of  green  vegetables  was  larger.  If 
corrections  are  introduced  for  the  nonalbuminoid  nitrogen  of  meat, 
similar  corrections  should  also  be  made  in  the  results  of  the  dietaries 
quoted  for  purposes  of  comparison. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The  review  of  the  foregoing  tables  and  discussion  leads  to  the  fol- 
lowing general  conclusions:  The  Chinese  studied,  who  are  believed  to 
be  fairly  representative  of  Chinese  residents  in  California  in  similar 
employment,  did  not.  as  is  often  supposed,  live  almost  entirely  upon  a 
vegetable  diet.  Indeed,  they  approached  no  nearer  to  such  a  diet  than 
does  the  average  American,  who  has  no  thought  of  doing  without  ani- 
mal food.  The  diet  was  varied  and  the  dietaries  were  well  balanced, 
approaching  quite  closely  to  the  commonly  accepted  dietary  standards. 
Many  of  the  foods  eaten  were  unfamiliar  to  most  Americans,  but  never- 
theless can  not  be  regarded  as  other  than  wholesome  and  nutritious. 

The  Chinese  dietary  is  commonly  believed  to  b'e  very  inexpensive 
and  limited  in  amount.  As  shown  by  these  studies,  it  was  quite  cheap, 
but  was  neither  scanty  nor  inferior. 

Bice  on  an  average  constituted  between  one-half  and  one-third  of 
the  total  food  consumed  and  held  much  the  same  relation  to  the  total 
food  of  the  Chinese  as  do  bread  and  other  cereals,  starches,  etc..  to 
the  total  food  of  the  ordinary  American  family.  The  amount  of  amid 
nitrogen  in  the  dietaries  was  so  small  that  it  can  be  disregarded. 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bui.  (38. 

o 


Bui. 

67. 

Bui. 

68. 

Bui. 

69. 

Bui. 

71. 

Bui. 

75. 

Bui. 

84. 

Bui. 

85. 

Bui. 

89. 

LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  OFFICE  OF  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS  ON 
THE  FOOD  AND  NUTRITION  OF  MAN-Continued. 

Studies  ou  Bread  and  Bread  Making.  By  Harry  Snyder  and  L.  A.  Voorhees. 
Pp.  51.     Price,  10  cents. 

A  Description  of  Some  Chinese  Vegetable  Food  Materials  and  Their  Nutri- 
tive and  Economic  Value.     By  W.  C.  Blasdale.     Pp.  48.     Price,  10  cents. 

Experiments  on  the  Metabolism  of  Matter  and  Energy  in  the  Human  Body. 
By  W.  O.  Atwater  and  F.  G.  Benedict,  with  the  Cooperation  of  A.  W. 
Smith  and  A.  P.  Bryant.     Pp.  112.     Price,  10  cents. 

Dietary  Studies  of  Negroes  in  Eastern  Virginia  in  1897  and  1898.  By  H.  B. 
Frissell  and  Isabel  Bevier.     Pp.  45.     Price,  5  cents. 

Dietary  Studies  of  University  Boat  Crews.  By  W.  0.  Atwater  and  A.  P. 
Bryant.     Pp.  72.     Price,  5  cents. 

Nutrition  Investigations  at  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station, 
1896-1898.     By  M.E.Jaffa.     Pp.39.     Price,  5  cents. 

A  Report  of  Investigations  on  the  Digestibilitv  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Bread. 
By  Chas.  D.  Woods  and  L.  H.  Merrill.     Pp.  51.     Price,  5  cents. 

Experiments  on  the  Effect  of  Muscular  Work  upon  the  Digestibility  of 
Food  and  the  Metabolism  of  Nitrogen.     Conducted  at  the  University  of 
Tennessee,  1897-1899.     By  C.  E.  Wait,     Pp.  77.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.    91.  Nutrition  Investigations  at  the  University  of  Illinois,  North  Dakota  Agri- 
cultural College,  and  Lake  Erie  College,  Ohio,  1896-1900.     By  H.  S. 
Grindley  and  J.  L.  Sammis,  E.  F.  Ladd,  and  Isabel  Bevier  and  Elizabeth 
C.  Sprague.     Pp.  42.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.    98.  The  Effect  of  Severe  and  Prolonged  Muscular  Work  on  Food  Consumption, 
Digestion,  and  Metabolism,  by  W.  O.  Atwater  and  H.  C.  Sherman,  and 
The  Mechanical  Work  and  Efficiency  of  Bicyclers,  by  R.  C.  Carpenter. 
Pp.  67.     Price,  5  cents. 
Bui.  101.  Studies  on  Bread  and  Bread  Making  at  the  University  of  Minnesota  in  1899 

and  1900.     Bv  Harrv  Snvder.     Pp.  65.     Price,  10  cents. 
Bui.  102.  Experiments  oil  Losses  in  Cooking  Meat,  1898-1900.     By  H.  S.  Grindley, 
H.  McCormack,  and  H.  C.  Porter.     Pp.  64.     Price,  5  cents. 

farmers'  bulletins. 

i.  Foods:  Nutritive  Value  and  Cost,     By  AV.  O.  Atwater.     Pp.32. 

Meats-.  Composition  and  Cooking.     Bv  C.  D.  Woods.     Pp.  29. 

Milk  as  Food.     Pp.  39. 

Fish  as. Food.     By  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Pp.  30. 

Sugar  as  Food.     By  Mary  H.  Abel.     Pp.27. 

Bread  and  the  Principles  of  Bread  Making.     By  Helen  W.  Atwater.     Pp.  38. 

Beans,  Peas,  and  other  Legumes  as  Food.     By  Mary  H.  Abel.     Pp.  32. 

Eggs  and  Their  Uses  as  Food.     By  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Pp.  32. 

CIRCULAR. 

Cir.     46.  Foods  for  Man.     By  C.  F.  Langworthy.     Pp.  10. 

SEPARATES.  - 

Food  and  Diet,     By  W.  O.  Atwater.     Reprinted  from  Yearbook  of  Department  of 


*Bul.    21 

Bui. 

34. 

Bui. 

74. 

Bui. 

85. 

Bui. 

93. 

Bui. 

112. 

Bui. 

121. 

Bui. 

128. 

i 


Agriculture  for  1894.     Pp.  44. 
Some  Results  of  Dietary  Studies  in  the  United  States.     By  A.  P.  Bryant.     Reprinted 

from  Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture  tor  1898.     Pp.  14. 
Development  of  the  Nutrition  Investigations  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.     By 

A.  C.  True  and  P.  D.  Milner.     Reprinted  from  Yearbook  of  Department  of 

Agriculture  for  1899.     Pp.  16. 
The  Value  of  Potatoes  as  Food.     By  C  F.  Langworthy.     Reprinted  from  Yearbook 

of  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1900.     Pp.  16. 


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